ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Paul Bloom - Psychologist
Paul Bloom explores some of the most puzzling aspects of human nature, including pleasure, religion, and morality.

Why you should listen

In Paul Bloom’s last book, How Pleasure Works, he explores the often-mysterious enjoyment that people get out of experiences such as sex, food, art, and stories. His latest book, Just Babies, examines the nature and origins of good and evil. How do we decide what's fair and unfair? What is the relationship between emotion and rationality in our judgments of right and wrong? And how much of morality is present at birth? To answer these questions, he and his colleagues at Yale study how babies make moral decisions. (How do you present a moral quandary to a 6-month-old? Through simple, gamelike experiments that yield surprisingly adult-like results.)  

Paul Bloom is a passionate teacher of undergraduates, and his popular Introduction to Psychology 110 class has been released to the world through the Open Yale Courses program. He has recently completed a second MOOC, “Moralities of Everyday Life”, that introduced moral psychology to tens of thousands of students. And he also presents his research to a popular audience though articles in The Atlantic, The New Yorker, and The New York Times. Many of the projects he works on are student-initiated, and all of them, he notes, are "strongly interdisciplinary, bringing in theory and research from areas such as cognitive, social, and developmental psychology, evolutionary theory, linguistics, theology and philosophy." 

He says: "A growing body of evidence suggests that humans do have a rudimentary moral sense from the very start of life."

More profile about the speaker
Paul Bloom | Speaker | TED.com
TEDGlobal 2011

Paul Bloom: The origins of pleasure

Paul Bloom: Izvor užitka

Filmed:
2,137,903 views

Zakaj so nam originalne slike bolj všeč od ponaredkov? Psiholog Paul Bloom trdi, da smo ljudje esencialisti - naša prepričanja o zgodovini predmeta vplivajo na način, kako ga doživljamo, ne zgolj kot iluzijo ampak kot globinsko značilnost tega kar užitek (in bolečina) je.
- Psychologist
Paul Bloom explores some of the most puzzling aspects of human nature, including pleasure, religion, and morality. Full bio

Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.

00:15
I'm going to talk todaydanes
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Danes bom govoril
00:17
about the pleasuresužitke of everydayvsak dan life.
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o užitkih vsakdanjega življenja.
00:19
But I want to beginzačeti with a storyzgodba
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Ampak začel bi rad z zgodbo
00:21
of an unusualnenavadno and terriblegrozno man.
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o nenavadnem in groznem človeku.
00:23
This is HermannHermann GoeringGoering.
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To je Hermann Göring.
00:25
GoeringGoering was Hitler'sHitler je seconddrugič in commandukaz in WorldSvet WarVojne IIII,
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Göring je bil Hitlerjev namestnik
v drugi svetovni vojni,
00:28
his designatedimenovani successornaslednik.
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njegov imenovani naslednik.
00:30
And like HitlerHitler,
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In prav tako kot Hitler,
je bil tudi Göring
zbiratelj umetniških del.
00:32
GoeringGoering fanciedImaginaran himselfsam a collectorzbiralec of artumetnost.
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00:34
He wentšla throughskozi EuropeEvropi, throughskozi WorldSvet WarVojne IIII,
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V času druge svetovne vojne je po Evropi
00:36
stealingtatvina, extortingextorting and occasionallyobčasno buyingnakup
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kradel, izsiljeval in občasno kupoval
00:39
variousrazlično paintingsslike for his collectionzbirka.
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različne slike za njegovo zbirko.
00:41
And what he really wanted was something by VermeerVermeer.
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In resnično si je želel delo Vermeera.
00:44
HitlerHitler had two of them, and he didn't have any.
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Hitler je imel že dve, sam pa še nobenega.
00:47
So he finallykončno foundnajdemo an artumetnost dealertrgovec,
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Tako je končno našel trgovca z umetninami,
00:49
a Dutchnizozemščina artumetnost dealertrgovec namedimenovan HanHan vankombi MeegerenMeegeren,
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nizozemskega trgovca
po imenu Han van Meegeren,
00:52
who soldprodano him a wonderfulČudovito VermeerVermeer
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ki mu je prodal čudovito delo Vermeera
00:54
for the coststroški of what would now be 10 millionmilijonov dollarsdolarjev.
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za ceno, ki bi danes znašala
10 milijonov dolarjev.
00:57
And it was his favoritenajljubši artworkumetniško delo ever.
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Bilo je njegovo najljubše
umetniško delo vseh časov.
01:00
WorldSvet WarVojne IIII cameprišel to an endkonec,
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Druga svetovna vojna se je končala
01:02
and GoeringGoering was capturedujet, triedposkušal at NurembergNürnberg
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in Göring je bil zajet
ter po sojenju v Nürnbergu
01:05
and ultimatelykončno sentencedobsojen to deathsmrt.
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obsojen na smrt.
01:08
Then the AlliedZavezniških forcessile wentšla throughskozi his collectionszbirk
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Zavezniške sile so
prebrskale njegove zbirke,
01:10
and foundnajdemo the paintingsslike
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našle slike in začele iskati ljudi,
ki so mu jih prodali.
01:12
and wentšla after the people who soldprodano it to him.
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01:14
And at some pointtočka the Dutchnizozemščina policepolicija cameprišel into AmsterdamAmsterdam
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Na neki točki je nizozemska policija
prišla v Amsterdam
01:17
and arrestedaretiran VanVan MeegerenMeegeren.
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in aretirala Van Meegerena.
01:19
VanVan MeegerenMeegeren was chargedzaračuna with the crimekriminal of treasonizdajstvo,
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Bil je obsojen izdaje,
01:22
whichki is itselfsama punishablekaznuje by deathsmrt.
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ki je kaznovana s smrtjo.
01:25
SixŠest weekstednih into his prisonzapor sentencestavek,
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Po šestih tednih zaporniške kazni
01:27
vankombi MeegerenMeegeren confessedpriznal.
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je van Meegeren priznal.
01:29
But he didn't confesspriznam to treasonizdajstvo.
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Ampak ni priznal izdaje.
01:31
He said, "I did not sellprodati a great masterpiecemojstrovina
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Dejal je: "Nisem prodal velike umetnine
01:34
to that NaziNacistični.
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tistemu nacistu.
01:36
I paintednaslikal it myselfjaz; I'm a forgerponarejevalec."
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Sam sem jo naslikal; ponarejevalec sem."
01:39
Now nobodynihče believedverjel him.
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Nihče mu ni verjel.
01:42
And he said, "I'll provedokazati it.
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In je dejal: "To bom dokazal.
01:44
BringPrinašajo me a canvasplatno and some paintbarva,
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Prinesite mi platno in nekaj barve
01:46
and I will paintbarva a VermeerVermeer much better
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in naslikal bom Vermeera, mnogo boljšega
01:48
than I soldprodano that disgustingOdvratno NaziNacistični.
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od tistega, ki sem ga prodal
ostudnemu nacistu.
01:50
I alsotudi need alcoholalkohol and morphinemorfin, because it's the only way I can work."
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Potrebujem tudi alkohol in morfij,
saj le tako lahko delam."
01:53
(LaughterSmeh)
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(Smeh)
01:55
So they broughtprinesel him in.
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Privedli so ga.
01:57
He paintednaslikal a beautifullepo VermeerVermeer.
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Naslikal je čudovitega Vermeera
02:00
And then the chargesstroški of treasonizdajstvo were droppedpadla.
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in nato so bile obtožbe izdaje opuščene.
02:03
He had a lessermanj chargeobtožiti of forgeryponarejanje,
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Bil je obsojen ponarejanja,
dobil leto dni zapora
02:05
got a yearleto sentencestavek
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02:07
and diedumrl a herojunak to the Dutchnizozemščina people.
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in umrl kot junak nizozemskega ljudstva.
02:11
There's a lot more to be said about vankombi MeegerenMeegeren,
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Še veliko je za povedati o van Meegerenu,
02:14
but I want to turnobrat now to GoeringGoering,
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vendar se sedaj želim vrniti k Göringu,
ki je na tej sliki prikazan
na zasliševanju v Nürnbergu.
02:16
who'skdo je picturedna sliki here beingbiti interrogatedzaslišani at NurembergNürnberg.
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02:19
Now GoeringGoering was, by all accountsračunov, a terriblegrozno man.
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Göring je bil, v vseh pogledih,
grozen človek.
02:21
Even for a NaziNacistični, he was a terriblegrozno man.
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Celo za nacista je bil grozen človek.
02:24
His AmericanAmeriški interrogatorsinterrogators describedopisano him
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Njegovi ameriški zasliševalci
so ga opisali kot prisrčnega psihopata.
02:27
as an amicablemirno psychopathpsihopat.
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02:29
But you could feel sympathysimpatije
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Ampak lahko si sočustvoval
z njegovo reakcijo,
02:31
for the reactionreakcija he had
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02:33
when he was told that his favoritenajljubši paintingslika
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ko je izvedel, da je njegova
najljubša slika dejansko ponaredek.
02:35
was actuallydejansko a forgeryponarejanje.
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02:37
AccordingV skladu z to his biographerbiograf,
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Glede na pričevanje njegovega biografa
02:39
"He lookedpogledal as if for the first time
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je "izgledal, kot da je prvič
odkril, da na svetu obstaja zlo."
02:41
he had discoveredodkriti there was evilzlo in the worldsvet."
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02:43
(LaughterSmeh)
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(Smeh)
02:46
And he killedubil himselfsam soonkmalu afterwardspotem.
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Kmalu zatem se je ubil.
02:49
He had discoveredodkriti after all
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Navsezadnje je odkril, da je slika,
za katero je mislil, da je ta,
02:51
that the paintingslika he thought was this
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02:53
was actuallydejansko that.
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bila dejansko ta.
02:56
It lookedpogledal the sameenako,
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Izgledala je enako,
vendar je imela drug izvor,
bila je druga umetnina.
02:58
but it had a differentdrugačen originporekla, it was a differentdrugačen artworkumetniško delo.
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03:00
It wasn'tni bilo just him who was in for a shockšok.
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Toda ni bil samo on presenečen.
03:02
OnceEnkrat vankombi MeegerenMeegeren was on trialposkus, he couldn'tni mogel stop talkinggovoriti.
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Ko se je sojenje van Meegerenu začelo,
ni mogel prenehati govoriti.
03:05
And he boastedhvalila about all the great masterpiecesmojstrovine
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Bahal se je z vsemi mojstrovinami,
ki jih je sam naslikal
03:07
that he himselfsam had paintednaslikal
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03:09
that were attributedpripišemo to other artistsumetniki.
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in ki so bile pripisane drugim avtorjem.
03:11
In particularzlasti, "The SupperVečerja at EmmausEmmaus"
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Zlasti "Večerja v Emavsu,"
03:13
whichki was viewedso si ogledali as Vermeer'sVermeerjev finestnajboljši masterpiecemojstrovina, his bestnajboljši work --
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ki je veljala za Vermeerjevo
najlepšo umetnino -
03:16
people would come [from] all over the worldsvet to see it --
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ljudje so prihajali z vseh koncev sveta,
da bi jo videli -
03:19
was actuallydejansko a forgeryponarejanje.
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je bila dejansko ponaredek.
03:21
It was not that paintingslika, but that paintingslika.
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Ni bila ta slika, namreč ta slika.
03:23
And when that was discoveredodkriti,
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In ko je bilo to ugotovljeno,
03:25
it lostizgubljen all its valuevrednost and was takensprejeti away from the museummuzej.
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je izgubila vso svojo vrednost
in bila odstranjena iz muzeja.
03:28
Why does this matterzadevo?
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Zakaj je to pomembno?
03:30
I'm a psychologistspsihologi -- why do originsizvira matterzadevo so much?
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Sam sem psiholog - zakaj je izvor
tako zelo pomemben?
03:33
Why do we respondodgovoriti so much
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Zakaj se tako močno odzovemo
na naše znanje o tem, od kod kaj prihaja?
03:35
to our knowledgeznanje of where something comesprihaja from?
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Obstaja odgovor,
ki bi ga ponudilo veliko ljudi.
03:38
Well there's an answerodgovor that manyveliko people would give.
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03:40
ManyVeliko sociologistssociologi like VeblenVeblen, sociolog and WolfeWolfe
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Mnogo sociologov, kot sta Veblen in Wolfe,
03:43
would arguetrdijo that the reasonrazlog why we take originsizvira so seriouslyresno
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bi trdilo, da je razlog
za tako resen pristop k izvoru v tem,
03:46
is because we're snobssnobs, because we're focusedosredotočen on statusstanje.
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ker smo snobi,
ker se preveč osredotočamo na status.
03:49
AmongMed other things,
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Med drugim, če želite pokazati,
kako bogati in vplivni ste,
03:51
if you want to showshow off how richbogat you are, how powerfulmočno you are,
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je vedno bolje imeti v lasti
original kot ponaredek,
03:53
it's always better to ownlastno an originaloriginal than a forgeryponarejanje
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03:55
because there's always going to be fewermanj originalsoriginali than forgeriesponaredkov.
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saj bo vedno obstajalo
manj originalov kot ponaredkov.
03:59
I don't doubtdvom that that playsigra some rolevloga,
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Ne dvomim, da to igra neko vlogo,
04:01
but what I want to convinceprepričajte you of todaydanes
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ampak danes bi vas rad prepričal,
da se dogaja še nekaj drugega.
04:03
is that there's something elsedrugače going on.
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04:05
I want to convinceprepričajte you
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Rad bi vas prepričal, da smo ljudje,
do neke mere, naravni esencialisti.
04:07
that humansljudje are, to some extentobseg, naturalnaravno bornRojen essentialistsessentialists.
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04:10
What I mean by this
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S tem mislim na to, da se ne odzovemo
zgolj na stvari, kot jih vidimo,
04:12
is we don't just respondodgovoriti to things as we see them,
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04:14
or feel them, or hearslišite them.
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čutimo ali slišimo.
04:16
RatherPrecej, our responseodziv is conditionedpogojena on our beliefsprepričanja,
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Naš odziv je pravzaprav
pogojen z našimi prepričanji
04:19
about what they really are, what they cameprišel from,
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o tem, kar dejansko so,
od koder prihajajo,
04:22
what they're madeizdelane of, what theirnjihovi hiddenskrito naturenarava is.
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iz česa so narejene,
kaj tiči v njihovi skriti naravi.
04:25
I want to suggestpredlagajte that this is trueresnično,
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Rad bi nakazal, da to ne drži
zgolj za to, kako razmišljamo o stvareh,
04:27
not just for how we think about things,
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04:29
but how we reactreagirati to things.
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ampak tudi kako se na stvari odzovemo.
Rad bi torej predlagal,
da je užitek globok -
04:31
So I want to suggestpredlagajte that pleasureužitek is deepgloboko --
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04:33
and that this isn't trueresnično
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in da to ne drži zgolj za užitke
višje ravni, kot je umetnost,
04:35
just for highervišje levelravni pleasuresužitke like artumetnost,
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04:38
but even the mostnajbolj seeminglynavidez simplepreprosto pleasuresužitke
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ampak da celo na navidezno
najpreprostejše užitke
04:41
are affectedprizadeta by our beliefsprepričanja about hiddenskrito essencesesence.
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vplivajo naša prepričanja
o skritem bistvu.
04:44
So take foodhrano.
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Vzemimo za primer hrano.
04:46
Would you eatjesti this?
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Bi jedli to?
04:48
Well, a good answerodgovor is, "It dependsodvisno. What is it?"
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No, dober odgovor je:
"Odvisno. Kaj je to?"
04:51
Some of you would eatjesti it if it's porksvinjina, but not beefgoveje meso.
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Nekateri bi jedli,
če je svinjina in ne govedina.
04:53
Some of you would eatjesti it if it's beefgoveje meso, but not porksvinjina.
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Nekateri bi to jedli,
če je govedina in ne svinjina.
04:56
FewNekaj of you would eatjesti it if it's a ratpodgana
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Redki od vas bi to jedli,
če je podgana ali človek.
04:58
or a humančlovek.
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Nekateri bi to jedli zgolj,
če je čudno obarvan kos tofuja.
05:00
Some of you would eatjesti it only if it's a strangelyčudno coloredbarvno piecekos of tofutofu.
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05:04
That's not so surprisingpresenetljivo.
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To ni tako presenetljivo.
05:06
But what's more interestingzanimivo
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Kar je bolj zanimivo je,
05:08
is how it tastesokusi to you
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da je stopnja okusnosti
05:10
will dependodvisno criticallykritično on what you think you're eatingjedo.
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izredno odvisna od tega,
kaj mislite, da jeste.
05:13
So one demonstrationpredstavitev of this was doneKončano with youngmladi childrenotroci.
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Demonstracija tega
je bila narejena z otroki.
05:16
How do you make childrenotroci
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Kako otroke prepričati,
da bodo jedli korenje in pili mleko
05:18
not just be more likelyverjetno to eatjesti carrotskorenje and drinkpijte milkmleko,
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in da bodo v tem tudi uživali -
05:21
but to get more pleasureužitek from eatingjedo carrotskorenje and drinkingpitje milkmleko --
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05:24
to think they tasteokus better?
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da bodo mislili, da je okusnejše?
05:26
It's simplepreprosto, you tell them they're from McDonald'sMcDonald's.
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Preprosto - rečete jim,
da je iz McDonald's-a.
Verjamejo, da je hrana
iz McDonald's-a okusnejša
05:29
They believe McDonald'sMcDonald's foodhrano is tastierokusnejša,
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05:31
and it leadsvodi them to experienceizkušnje it as tastierokusnejša.
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in zaradi tega jo tudi doživljajo
kot okusnejšo.
Kako pripraviti odrasle,
da bodo zares uživali v vinu?
05:34
How do you get adultsodrasli to really enjoyuživajte winevino?
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05:36
It's very simplepreprosto:
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Zelo preprosto je:
05:38
pourpour it from an expensivedraga bottlesteklenica.
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nalijte ga iz drage steklenice.
05:40
There are now dozensdesetine, perhapsmorda hundredsstotine of studiesštudije showingprikazovanje
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Obstaja na ducate,
morda na stotine študij,
ki kažejo, da je zaradi prepričanja
o pitju nečesa dragega to zate okusnejše.
05:43
that if you believe you're drinkingpitje the expensivedraga stuffstvari,
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05:45
it tastesokusi better to you.
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05:47
This was recentlypred kratkim doneKončano with a neuroscientificneuroscientific twisttwist.
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Nedavno je bilo to narejeno
z nevroznanstvenim preobratom.
05:50
They get people into a fMRIfMRI scannerskener,
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Ljudi namestijo v fMRI skener
05:52
and while they're lyinglaž there, throughskozi a tubecev,
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in medtem ko v njem ležijo,
skozi cevko srkajo vino.
05:54
they get to sipSIP winevino.
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05:56
In frontspredaj of them on a screenzaslon is informationinformacije about the winevino.
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Pred njimi je zaslon
z informacijami o vinu.
05:59
EverybodyVsi, of courseseveda,
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Vsi, seveda, pijejo popolnoma isto vino.
06:01
drinkspijače exactlytočno the sameenako winevino.
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Vendar, če verjameš, da piješ dražjega,
06:03
But if you believe you're drinkingpitje expensivedraga stuffstvari,
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06:06
partsdeli of the brainmožganov associatedpovezan with pleasureužitek and rewardnagrada
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se deli možganov,
povezani z užitkom in nagrado,
06:09
lightsvetloba up like a ChristmasBožič treedrevo.
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zasvetijo kot božično drevo.
06:11
It's not just that you say it's more pleasurableprijetno, you say you like it more,
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Ni stvar zgolj v tem, da rečeš,
da bolj uživaš in ti je bolj všeč,
06:14
you really experienceizkušnje it in a differentdrugačen way.
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ampak resnično to doživljaš drugače.
06:17
Or take sexseks.
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Ali na primer seks.
06:20
These are stimulidražljaje I've used in some of my studiesštudije.
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To so dražljaji, ki sem jih uporabil
v nekaterih mojih študijah.
06:23
And if you simplypreprosto showshow people these picturesslike,
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Če ljudem preprosto pokažemo te slike,
06:26
they'lloni bodo say these are fairlypošteno attractiveprivlačen people.
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bodo dejali, da sta to
precej privlačna človeka.
06:28
But how attractiveprivlačen you find them,
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Ampak, kako privlačna se vam zdita,
kako seksualno ali romantično vas ganejo,
06:31
how sexuallyspolno or romanticallyromantično movedpreselil you are by them,
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06:34
restspočiva criticallykritično on who you think you're looking at.
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je kritično odvisno od tega,
koga mislite, da gledate.
06:37
You probablyverjetno think the pictureslika on the left is malemoški,
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Verjetno mislite, da je levo slika moškega
in desno slika ženske.
06:40
the one on the right is femaležensko.
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06:42
If that beliefprepričanje turnszavrti out to be mistakennapačno, it will make a differenceRazlika.
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Če se to izkaže za napačno,
bi to spremenilo vaše mnenje.
06:45
(LaughterSmeh)
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(Smeh)
06:47
It will make a differenceRazlika if they turnobrat out to be
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Vplivalo bi tudi, če se izkaže,
06:49
much youngermlajši or much olderstarejši than you think they are.
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da sta veliko mlajša ali starejša,
kot mislite, da sta.
06:52
It will make a differenceRazlika if you were to discoverodkrijte
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Na sliko bi gledali drugače,
če bi odkrili,
06:54
that the personoseba you're looking at with lustpoželenje
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da je oseba, ki jo gledate s poželenjem,
zakrinkana verzija vašega sina ali hčerke,
06:56
is actuallydejansko a disguisedprikrit versionrazličico of your sonsin or daughterhči,
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06:58
your mothermama or fatherOče.
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vaše matere ali očeta.
07:00
KnowingPoznavanje somebody'snekdo je your kinKin typicallyobičajno killsubija the libidolibido.
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Vedenje o sorodstvu navadno ubije libido.
07:03
Maybe one of the mostnajbolj hearteningspodbuden findingsugotovitve
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Morda eno izmed bolj ohrabrujočih odkritij
s področja psihologije užitka
07:05
from the psychologyPsihologija of pleasureužitek
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07:07
is there's more to looking good than your physicalfizično appearancevidez.
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je, da za dobrim izgledom
stoji več kot zgolj fizična pojava.
07:10
If you like somebodynekdo, they look better to you.
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Če ti je nekdo všeč, zate izgleda bolje.
07:13
This is why spouseszakonca in happyvesel marriagessklenitve zakonskih zvez
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Zaradi tega so pari v srečnih zakonih
07:16
tendnagibati se to think that theirnjihovi husbandmož or wifežena
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nagnjeni k mišljenju,
da njihov mož ali žena
07:18
looksizgleda much better than anyonekdorkoli elsedrugače thinksmisli that they do.
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izgleda veliko bolje, kot mislijo ostali.
07:21
(LaughterSmeh)
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(Smeh)
07:23
A particularlyzlasti dramaticdramatično exampleprimer of this
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Posebno dramatičen primer tega
07:26
comesprihaja from a neurologicalnevrološki disordermotnje knownznano as CapgrasCapgras syndromesindroma.
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izhaja iz nevrološke motnje
imenovane Capgrasov sindrom.
07:29
So CapgrasCapgras syndromesindroma is a disordermotnje
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Capgrasov sindrom je motnja,
kjer je oseba podvržena posebni zablodi.
07:32
where you get a specificspecifično delusionblodnje.
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07:34
SufferersTrpijo of CapgrasCapgras syndromesindroma
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Osebe, ki trpijo za tem sindromom
verjamejo, da so bili njihovi najbližji
07:36
believe that the people they love mostnajbolj in the worldsvet
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07:38
have been replacedzamenjali by perfectpopolno duplicatesdvojnike.
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zamenjani s popolnimi dvojniki.
07:40
Now oftenpogosto, a resultrezultat of CapgrasCapgras syndromesindroma is tragictragično.
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Pogosto so lahko rezultati
Capgrasovega sindroma tragični.
07:43
People have murderedumorjen those that they lovedLjubil sem,
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Ljudje so umorili ljubljene,
misleč, da gre za vsiljivce.
07:45
believingverjeti that they were murderingumor an imposterslepar.
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07:48
But there's at leastvsaj one caseprimera
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Obstaja pa vsaj en primer, kjer se je
Capgrasov sindrom končal srečno.
07:50
where CapgrasCapgras syndromesindroma had a happyvesel endingkonec.
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07:52
This was recordedzabeležili in 1931.
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To je bilo zabeleženo leta 1931.
07:54
"ResearchRaziskave describedopisano a womanženska with CapgrasCapgras syndromesindroma
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"Študija je opisala žensko
s Capgrasovim sindromom,
ki se je pritoževala nad slabo obdarjenim
in seksualno neprimernim ljubimcem."
07:57
who complainedpritožil about her poorlyslabo endowedobdarjen and sexuallyspolno inadequateneustrezne loverljubimec."
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08:00
But that was before she got CapgrasCapgras syndromesindroma.
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Ampak to je bilo preden
je dobila Capgrasov sindrom.
08:03
After she got it, "She was happyvesel to reportporočilo
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Po tem "je z veseljem poročala
o odkritju o njegovem dvojniku,
08:05
that she has discoveredodkriti that he possessedposedovali a doubledvojno
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ki je bogat, možat,
lep in aristokratičen."
08:08
who was richbogat, virilemoški, handsomečeden and aristocraticaristokratsko."
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08:10
Of courseseveda, it was the sameenako man,
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Seveda je šlo za istega moškega,
a ga je gledala na drugačen način.
08:12
but she was seeingvidenje him in differentdrugačen waysnačinov.
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08:14
As a thirdtretjino exampleprimer,
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Kot tretji primer
pomislite na potrošniške izdelke.
08:16
considerrazmislite consumerpotrošnika productsizdelkov.
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08:18
So one reasonrazlog why you mightmorda like something is its utilityuporabnost.
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En razlog, zakaj bi vam
nekaj bilo všeč, je uporabnost.
08:21
You can put shoesčevlji on your feetstopala; you can playigraj golfgolf with golfgolf clubsklubi;
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Čevlje lahko obujete;
s palicami za golf lahko igrate golf;
08:24
and chewedžvečenje up bubblemehurček gumgumi doesn't do anything at all for you.
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in od prežvečenega žvečilnega gumija
nimate nobene koristi.
08:27
But eachvsak of these threetri objectspredmetov has valuevrednost
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Vendar ima vsak od teh predmetov vrednost
onkraj njegove koristi za vas,
08:29
abovenad and beyondnaprej what it can do for you
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08:31
basedtemelji on its historyzgodovina.
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temelječo na njegovi zgodovini.
08:33
The golfgolf clubsklubi were ownedv lasti by JohnJohn F. KennedyKennedy
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Palice za golf so pripadale
Johnu F. Kennedyju
in so bile na dražbi prodane
za tri četrt milijona dolarjev.
08:36
and soldprodano for three-quarterstri četrtine of a millionmilijonov dollarsdolarjev at auctiondražbi.
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08:39
The bubblemehurček gumgumi was chewedžvečenje up by poppop starzvezda BritneyBritney SpearsBritney Spears
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Žvečilni gumi je prežvečila
pop zvezda Britney Spears,
08:42
and soldprodano for severalveč hundredsstotine of dollarsdolarjev.
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prodan pa je bil za več sto dolarjev.
08:44
And in factdejstvo, there's a thrivinguspešno markettrg
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Dejansko obstaja cvetoč trg za
delno zaužito hrano priljubljenih ljudi.
08:46
in the partiallydelno eatenjedel foodhrano of belovedljubljeni people.
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08:49
(LaughterSmeh)
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(Smeh)
08:51
The shoesčevlji are perhapsmorda the mostnajbolj valuabledragocen of all.
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Ti čevlji so morda od vseh
najbolj dragoceni.
08:54
AccordingV skladu z to an unconfirmednepotrjeno reportporočilo,
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Glede na nepotrjeno poročilo je
08:56
a SaudiSavdski millionairemilijonar offeredponujen 10 millionmilijonov dollarsdolarjev
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saudski milijonar ponudil
10 milijonov dolarjev za ta par čevljev.
08:58
for this pairpar of shoesčevlji.
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09:00
They were the onestiste thrownvržen at GeorgeGeorge BushBush
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Bili so tisti, vrženi v Georgea Busha
09:03
at an IraqiIraški presspritisnite conferencekonferenca severalveč yearslet agonazaj.
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na iraški novinarski konferenci
pred nekaj leti.
09:05
(ApplauseAplavz)
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(Aplavz)
09:07
Now this attractionatrakcija to objectspredmetov
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Ta privlačnost do predmetov
ne deluje zgolj za predmete znanih oseb.
09:09
doesn't just work for celebrityslaven objectspredmetov.
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09:11
EachVsak one of us, mostnajbolj people,
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Vsakdo izmed nas, večina ljudi,
09:13
have something in our life that's literallydobesedno irreplaceablenenadomestljiv,
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ima v življenju nekaj,
kar je dobesedno nezamenljivo.
09:16
in that it has valuevrednost because of its historyzgodovina --
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Vrednost te stvari
pa prihaja iz njene zgodovine -
morda vaš poročni prstan,
morda otroški čevlji vašega potomca -
09:19
maybe your weddingPoroka ringprstan, maybe your child'sotroka babyotroka shoesčevlji --
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09:22
so that if it was lostizgubljen, you couldn'tni mogel get it back.
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in če bi bila izgubljena,
je ne bi mogli dobiti nazaj.
09:25
You could get something that lookedpogledal like it or feltčutil like it,
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Lahko bi dobili nekaj,
kar je tako na videz in otip,
09:27
but you couldn'tni mogel get the sameenako objectpredmet back.
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ampak istega predmeta
ne bi mogli dobiti nazaj.
09:30
With my colleagueskolegi GeorgeGeorge NewmanNewman and GilGil DiesendruckDiesendruck,
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S kolegoma Georgeom Newmanom
in Gilom Diesendruckom
09:33
we'vesmo lookedpogledal to see what sortRazvrsti of factorsdejavniki, what sortRazvrsti of historyzgodovina, matterszadeve
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smo preverili, kateri dejavniki,
kakšna zgodovina je pomembna
09:36
for the objectspredmetov that people like.
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pri predmetih, ki so ljudem všeč.
09:38
So in one of our experimentsposkuse,
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V enem izmed naših eksperimentov
09:40
we askedvprašal people to nameime a famousslavni personoseba who they adoredoboževal,
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smo ljudi vprašali po znanih osebah,
ki jih obožujejo,
09:43
a livingživeti personoseba they adoredoboževal.
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še živečih oseb, ki jih obožujejo.
09:45
So one answerodgovor was GeorgeGeorge ClooneyClooney.
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Eden izmed odgovorov
je bil George Clooney.
09:47
Then we askedvprašal them,
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Nato smo jih vprašali:
"Koliko bi odšteli za njegov pulover?"
09:49
"How much would you payplačati for GeorgeGeorge Clooney'sClooney sweaterpulover?"
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09:51
And the answerodgovor is a fairpošteno amountznesek --
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In odgovor je precej visoka vrednost -
09:53
more than you would payplačati for a brandznamka newnovo sweaterpulover
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več kot bi plačali
za popolnoma nov pulover
09:56
or a sweaterpulover ownedv lasti by somebodynekdo who you didn't adoreobožujejo.
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ali pulover, ki je pripadal nekomu,
ki ga niso oboževali.
Nato smo vprašali drugo skupino -
09:59
Then we askedvprašal other groupsskupine of subjectspredmetov --
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10:01
we gavedala them differentdrugačen restrictionsomejitve
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podali smo jim drugačne omejitve
in drugačne pogoje.
10:03
and differentdrugačen conditionspogoji.
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10:05
So for instanceprimer, we told some people,
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Na primer,
nekaterim izmed njih smo dejali:
10:07
"Look, you can buykupiti the sweaterpulover,
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"Poglejte, lahko kupite pulover,
ampak nikomur ne smete povedati,
da ga imate
10:09
but you can't tell anybodykdorkoli you ownlastno it,
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10:11
and you can't resellpreprodaja it."
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in ne smete ga prodati naprej."
10:13
That dropskapljice the valuevrednost of it,
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Zaradi tega je njegova cena upadla,
10:15
suggestingpredlagamo that that's one reasonrazlog why we like it.
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kar nakazuje na enega od razlogov,
zakaj nam je všeč.
10:18
But what really causesvzroki an effectučinek
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Ampak resnično vpliva na rezultate,
10:20
is you tell people, "Look, you could resellpreprodaja it, you could boastpohvali about it,
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če rečemo: "Lahko ga
prodate naprej, lahko se bahate,
10:23
but before it getsdobi to you,
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vendar bo, preden ga dobite,
temeljito opran."
10:25
it's thoroughlytemeljito washedoprano."
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10:27
That causesvzroki a hugeogromno droppadec in the valuevrednost.
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To je povzročilo ogromen padec
v vrednosti.
10:30
As my wifežena put it, "You've washedoprano away the ClooneyClooney cootiescooties."
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Kot pravi moja žena,
smo s tem "odplaknili Clooneyjeve bacile."
10:33
(LaughterSmeh)
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(Smeh)
10:35
So let's go back to artumetnost.
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Pa se vrnimo nazaj k umetnosti.
10:37
I would love a ChagallChagall. I love the work of ChagallChagall.
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Rad bi imel Chagalla.
Rad imam njegovo delo.
10:39
If people want to get me something at the endkonec of the conferencekonferenca,
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Če bi mi kdo rad kaj podaril ob koncu
konference, mi lahko kupi Chagalla.
10:41
you could buykupiti me a ChagallChagall.
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10:43
But I don't want a duplicatedvojnik,
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Vendar nočem kopije,
10:45
even if I can't tell the differenceRazlika.
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čeprav ne bi opazil razlike.
10:47
That's not because, or it's not simplypreprosto because,
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To ni zato, oziroma ni preprosto zato,
10:49
I'm a snobsnob and want to boastpohvali about havingimeti an originaloriginal.
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ker sem snob
in se hočem bahati z originalom.
10:52
RatherPrecej, it's because I want something that has a specificspecifično historyzgodovina.
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To je zato, ker si želim nečesa
z določeno zgodovino.
10:55
In the caseprimera of artworkumetniško delo,
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V primeru umetniških del
je zgodovina zares posebna.
10:57
the historyzgodovina is specialposeben indeedprav zares.
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10:59
The philosopherfilozof DenisDenis DuttonDutton
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Filozof Denis Dutton
v svoji čudoviti knjigi "The Art Instinct"
11:01
in his wonderfulČudovito bookknjigo "The ArtArt InstinctNagon"
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11:03
makesnaredi the caseprimera that, "The valuevrednost of an artworkumetniško delo
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ugotavlja,
da je "vrednost umetniškega dela
11:05
is rootedzakoreninjen in assumptionspredpostavke about the humančlovek performanceizvedba underlyingosnovni its creationustvarjanje."
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zakoreninjena v domnevah o človeškem delu,
potrebnem za njegovo stvaritev. "
11:08
And that could explainpojasnite the differenceRazlika
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To bi lahko pojasnilo razliko
med originalom in ponaredkom.
11:10
betweenmed an originaloriginal and a forgeryponarejanje.
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11:12
They maylahko look alikepodobno, but they have a differentdrugačen historyzgodovina.
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Lahko sta podobna,
vendar z različno zgodovino.
11:14
The originaloriginal is typicallyobičajno the productizdelek of a creativeustvarjalno actukrepati,
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Original je tipično
produkt kreativnega dejanja,
11:17
the forgeryponarejanje isn't.
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ponaredek pa ne.
11:19
I think this approachpristop can explainpojasnite differencesrazlike
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Menim, da tovrsten pristop
lahko pojasni razlike
11:22
in people'sljudje tasteokus in artumetnost.
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v različnih okusih za umetnost.
11:24
This is a work by JacksonJackson PollockPollock.
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To je delo Jacksona Pollocka.
11:26
Who here likesVšeč mi je the work of JacksonJackson PollockPollock?
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Komu izmed vas so njegova dela všeč?
11:30
Okay. Who here, it does nothing for them?
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Dobro. Na koga izmed vas sploh
ne vplivajo? Komu preprosto niso všeč?
11:32
They just don't like it.
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11:35
I'm not going to make a claimzahtevek about who'skdo je right,
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Ne bom trdil, kdo ima prav,
bom pa postavil empirično trditev
11:37
but I will make an empiricalempiričnih claimzahtevek
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11:39
about people'sljudje intuitionsintuicije,
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o človeški intuiciji:
11:41
whichki is that, if you like the work of JacksonJackson PollockPollock,
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Če vam je delo Jacksona Pollocka všeč,
11:43
you'llboš tendnagibati se more so than the people who don't like it
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ste bolj kot ljudje,
ki jim to ni všeč, nagnjeni
11:46
to believe that these worksdela are difficulttežko to createustvarite,
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k prepričanju,
da je ta dela težko ustvariti,
11:49
that they requirezahtevajo a lot of time and energyenergija
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da je zanje potrebno
veliko časa in energije
11:51
and creativeustvarjalno energyenergija.
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ter kreativne energije.
11:53
I use JacksonJackson PollockPollock on purposenamen as an exampleprimer
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Jacksona Pollocka kot primer
uporabljam namenoma,
11:56
because there's a youngmladi AmericanAmeriški artistumetnik
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saj obstaja mlada ameriška umetnica,
ki slika v njegovem stilu.
11:58
who paintsbarve very much in the styleslog of JacksonJackson PollockPollock,
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12:00
and her work was worthvredno
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Njena dela so bila vredna
več deset tisoč dolarjev -
12:02
manyveliko tensdeset of thousandstisoče of dollarsdolarjev --
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12:04
in largevelik partdel because she's a very youngmladi artistumetnik.
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v glavnem zato, ker je
zelo mlada umetnica.
12:06
This is MarlaMarla OlmsteadOlmstead
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To je Marla Olmstead,
12:08
who did mostnajbolj of her work when she was threetri yearslet oldstar.
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ki je večino del napravila,
ko je bila stara tri leta.
12:10
The interestingzanimivo thing about MarlaMarla OlmsteadOlmstead
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Zanimivo glede Marle Olmstead je,
da je njena družina napravila napako,
12:12
is her familydružina madeizdelane the mistakenapaka
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12:14
of invitingvabi the televisiontelevizija programprogram 60 MinutesMinut IIII into theirnjihovi househiša
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ko je v svoj dom povabila
televizijski program 60 Minut,
12:18
to filmfilm her paintingslika.
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da bi jo posneli kako slika.
12:20
And they then reportedporočali that her fatherOče was coachingcoaching her.
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Nato so poročali, da jo uči njen oče.
12:23
When this cameprišel out on televisiontelevizija,
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Ko je bilo to objavljeno na televiziji,
12:25
the valuevrednost of her artumetnost droppedpadla to nothing.
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je vrednost njenih del
skoraj povsem upadla.
12:28
It was the sameenako artumetnost, physicallyfizično,
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Fizično so bila dela enaka,
12:30
but the historyzgodovina had changedspremenjeno.
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a njihova zgodovina se je spremenila.
12:33
I've been focusingosredotoča now on the visualvizualno artsumetnosti,
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Osredotočal sem se na vizualno umetnost,
rad pa bi podal tudi
dva primera iz glasbe.
12:35
but I want to give two examplesprimeri from musicglasba.
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12:37
This is JoshuaJoshua BellBell, a very famousslavni violinistviolinista.
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To je Joshua Bell, zelo slaven violinist.
12:39
And the WashingtonWashington PostDelovno mesto reporterporočevalec GeneGen WeingartenWeingarten
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Novinar Washington Posta,
Gene Weingarten,
12:42
decidedodločil to enlistvpoklicati him for an audaciousdrzno experimentposkus.
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se ga je odločil vpoklicati
v drzen eksperiment.
Vprašanje: Kako bi bila Joshua Bell
in njegova glasba ljudem všeč,
12:45
The questionvprašanje is: How much would people like JoshuaJoshua BellBell,
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12:47
the musicglasba of JoshuaJoshua BellBell,
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12:49
if they didn't know they were listeningposlušanje to JoshuaJoshua BellBell?
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če ne bi vedeli, da poslušajo njega?
12:53
So he got JoshuaJoshua BellBell to take his millionmilijonov dollardolar violinviolina
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Tako je pripravil Joshuo Bella, da je
svojo milijon dolarjev vredno violino
12:56
down to a WashingtonWashington D.C. subwaypodzemna stationpostaja
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prinesel na postajo podzemne železnice
v Washingtonu,
12:59
and standstojalo in the cornerkotiček and see how much moneydenar he would make.
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se postavil v kot in spremljal,
koliko denarja bo zaslužil.
13:02
And here'sTukaj je a briefkratko clipposnetek of this.
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Tukaj je krajši odlomek.
(Violinska glasba)
13:04
(ViolinViolina musicglasba)
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13:11
After beingbiti there for three-quarterstri četrtine of an houruro,
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Po tem, ko je tam stal tri četrt ure,
je zaslužil 32 dolarjev.
13:13
he madeizdelane 32 dollarsdolarjev.
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13:16
Not badslab. It's alsotudi not good.
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Ni slabo. Prav tako pa tudi ni dobro.
13:18
ApparentlyOčitno to really enjoyuživajte the musicglasba of JoshuaJoshua BellBell,
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Očitno je za uživanje v glasbi Joshue Bell
13:21
you have to know you're listeningposlušanje to JoshuaJoshua BellBell.
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potrebno vedeti, da poslušate Joshuo Bell.
13:24
He actuallydejansko madeizdelane 20 dollarsdolarjev more than that,
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Pravzaprav je zaslužil 20 dolarjev več,
vendar tega ni upošteval.
13:26
but he didn't countšteje it.
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13:28
Because this womanženska comesprihaja up --
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Pojavila se je namreč ženska -
kar lahko vidite na koncu posnetka.
13:30
you see at the endkonec of the videovideo -- she comesprihaja up.
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Pred nekaj tedni ga je slišala
v Kongresni knjižnici
13:32
She had heardslišal him at the LibraryKnjižnica of CongressKongres a fewmalo weekstednih before
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13:34
at this extravagantNastran black-tieBlack-tie affairafera.
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v ekstravagantni opravi s črno kravato.
13:37
So she's stunnedosupla that he's standingstoji in a subwaypodzemna stationpostaja.
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Bila je presenečena,
da stoji na postaji podzemne železnice.
13:40
So she's struckudaril with pityškoda.
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Presunilo jo je usmiljenje.
13:42
She reachesdoseže into her pursetorbica and handsroke him a 20.
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Segla je v torbico
in mu dala dvajsetaka.
13:44
(LaughterSmeh)
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(Smeh)
13:46
(ApplauseAplavz)
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(Aplavz)
13:48
The seconddrugič exampleprimer from musicglasba
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Drugi primer iz glasbe je modernistična
kompozicija Johna Cagea, 4' 33''.
13:50
is from JohnJohn Cage'sKoš je modernistModernist compositionsestava,
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13:52
"4'33"."
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13:54
As manyveliko of you know,
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Kot mnogi izmed vas veste,
pri tej kompoziciji pianist sede na klop,
13:56
this is the compositionsestava where the pianistpianist sitssedi at a benchklop,
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13:59
opensse odpre up the pianoklavir
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odpre klavir in štiri minute in 33 sekund
samo sedi - to je obdobje tišine.
14:01
and sitssedi and does nothing for fourštiri minutesminut and 33 secondssekund --
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14:03
that periodobdobje of silencetišina.
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14:05
And people have differentdrugačen viewspogledi on this.
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Ljudje imajo na to različne poglede.
14:07
But what I want to pointtočka out
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Vendar, kar hočem izpostaviti je,
da lahko to kupite preko iTunes.
14:09
is you can buykupiti this from iTunesiTunes.
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(Smeh)
14:11
(LaughterSmeh)
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14:13
For a dollardolar 99,
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Za $1.99 lahko poslušate to tišino,
14:15
you can listen to that silencetišina,
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14:17
whichki is differentdrugačen than other formsobrazce of silencetišina.
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ki je drugačna od drugih vrst tišine.
14:20
(LaughterSmeh)
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(Smeh)
14:22
Now I've been talkinggovoriti so fardaleč about pleasureužitek,
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Do zdaj sem govoril o užitku,
vendar, kar tudi želim predlagati, je,
14:25
but what I want to suggestpredlagajte
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14:27
is that everything I've said appliesvelja as well to painbolečina.
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da se vse povedano
nanaša tudi na bolečino.
14:30
And how you think about what you're experiencingdoživlja,
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To, kako razmišljaš o tem, kar doživljaš,
tvoja prepričanja o samem bistvu tega,
14:32
your beliefsprepričanja about the essencebistvo of it,
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14:34
affectvplivati how it hurtsboli.
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vpliva na intenziteto bolečine.
14:36
One lovelylepo experimentposkus
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Ljubek eksperiment sta napravila
Kurt Gray in Dan Wegener.
14:38
was doneKončano by KurtKurt GraySiva and DanDan WegnerWegner.
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14:40
What they did was they hookedzasvojen up HarvardHarvard undergraduatesštudentov
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Harvardske študente sta priklopila
na napravo za elektrošoke.
14:42
to an electricelektrični shockšok machinestroj.
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14:44
And they gavedala them a seriesserije of painfulboleče electricelektrični shocksšoke.
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Izpostavila sta jih
bolečim električnim šokom.
Bil je niz petih elektrošokov.
14:47
So it was a seriesserije of fivepet painfulboleče shocksšoke.
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14:50
HalfPolovica of them are told that they're beingbiti givendan the shocksšoke
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Polovici udeležencev sta dejala, da je
za šoke odgovoren nekdo iz sosednje sobe,
14:52
by somebodynekdo in anotherdrugo roomsoba,
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14:54
but the personoseba in the other roomsoba doesn't know they're givingdajanje them shocksšoke.
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vendar se ta oseba tega ne zaveda.
14:57
There's no malevolencezlonamernimi, they're just pressingstiskanje a buttongumb.
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Ni zlonamernosti, samo pritiska na gumbe.
14:59
The first shockšok is recordedzabeležili as very painfulboleče.
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Prvi šok je bil zabeležen kot zelo boleč.
15:02
The seconddrugič shockšok feelspočuti lessmanj painfulboleče, because you get a bitbit used to it.
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Drugi je manj boleč,
saj se že malo navadiš.
15:05
The thirdtretjino dropskapljice, the fourthčetrti, the fifthpeti.
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Tretji boli še manj, četrti, peti.
Bolečina pojenja.
15:07
The painbolečina getsdobi lessmanj.
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15:10
In the other conditionstanje,
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V drugem pogoju so udeležencem dejali,
15:12
they're told that the personoseba in the nextNaslednji roomsoba
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da nekdo sproža elektrošoke namerno
- da ve, da to počne.
15:14
is shockingšokantno them on purposenamen -- knowsve they're shockingšokantno them.
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15:17
The first shockšok hurtsboli like hellhudiča.
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Prvi elektrošok je bolel kot hudič.
15:19
The seconddrugič shockšok hurtsboli just as much,
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Drugi je bolel prav tako močno,
15:21
and the thirdtretjino and the fourthčetrti and the fifthpeti.
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in tretji in četrti in peti.
15:23
It hurtsboli more
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Bolj boli, če verjameš,
da ti nekdo to počne namerno.
15:25
if you believe somebodynekdo is doing it to you on purposenamen.
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15:28
The mostnajbolj extremeekstremno exampleprimer of this
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Najskrajnejši primer tega je,
15:31
is that in some casesprimerov,
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da v nekaterih primerih,
15:33
painbolečina underSpodaj the right circumstancesokoliščin
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lahko bolečina v pravih okoliščinah
15:35
can transformpreoblikovati into pleasureužitek.
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preraste v užitek.
15:37
HumansLjudi have this extraordinarilyizjemno interestingzanimivo propertynepremičnine
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Ljudje imamo
to nenavadno zanimivo lastnost,
15:40
that will oftenpogosto seekiščite out low-levelnizko stopnjo dosesodmerki of painbolečina
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da pogosto iščemo manjše odmerke bolečine
15:42
in controlledpod nadzorom circumstancesokoliščin
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v nadzorovanih okoliščinah
in v njih uživamo -
15:44
and take pleasureužitek from it --
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15:46
as in the eatingjedo of hotvroče chiličili pepperspaprike
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kot v uživanju pekočih čilijev,
15:48
and rollervalj coasterželeznica ridesvožnja.
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ali v vožnji z vlakci
v zabaviščnih parkih.
15:51
The pointtočka was nicelylepo summarizedpovzeti
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To lepo povzame pesnik John Milton,
15:53
by the poetpesnik JohnJohn MiltonMilton
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15:55
who wrotenapisal, "The mindum is its ownlastno placemesto,
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ki je zapisal: "Um je poseben kraj,
in v sebi lahko ustvari nebesa iz pekla,
15:57
and in itselfsama can make a heavennebesa of hellhudiča,
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15:59
a hellhudiča of heavennebesa."
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pekel iz nebes."
16:01
And I'll endkonec with that. Thank you.
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In s tem bom tudi zaključil. Hvala.
16:03
(ApplauseAplavz)
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(Aplavz)
Translated by Sergej Žižek
Reviewed by Nika Kotnik

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ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Paul Bloom - Psychologist
Paul Bloom explores some of the most puzzling aspects of human nature, including pleasure, religion, and morality.

Why you should listen

In Paul Bloom’s last book, How Pleasure Works, he explores the often-mysterious enjoyment that people get out of experiences such as sex, food, art, and stories. His latest book, Just Babies, examines the nature and origins of good and evil. How do we decide what's fair and unfair? What is the relationship between emotion and rationality in our judgments of right and wrong? And how much of morality is present at birth? To answer these questions, he and his colleagues at Yale study how babies make moral decisions. (How do you present a moral quandary to a 6-month-old? Through simple, gamelike experiments that yield surprisingly adult-like results.)  

Paul Bloom is a passionate teacher of undergraduates, and his popular Introduction to Psychology 110 class has been released to the world through the Open Yale Courses program. He has recently completed a second MOOC, “Moralities of Everyday Life”, that introduced moral psychology to tens of thousands of students. And he also presents his research to a popular audience though articles in The Atlantic, The New Yorker, and The New York Times. Many of the projects he works on are student-initiated, and all of them, he notes, are "strongly interdisciplinary, bringing in theory and research from areas such as cognitive, social, and developmental psychology, evolutionary theory, linguistics, theology and philosophy." 

He says: "A growing body of evidence suggests that humans do have a rudimentary moral sense from the very start of life."

More profile about the speaker
Paul Bloom | Speaker | TED.com