TEDGlobal 2011
Allan Jones: A map of the brain
Allan Jones談大腦解析圖
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我們該從何瞭解腦袋如何運作的呢？就跟我們瞭解一個城市一樣：繪製一張地圖。在這個震撼的講座中，Allan Jones解釋他的團隊如何繪製腦中每個小區域中的基因表現及它們是如何連結的。
Allan Jones - Brain scientist
As CEO of the Allen Institute for Brain Science, Allan Jones leads an ambitious project to build an open, online, interactive atlas of the human brain. Full bio
As CEO of the Allen Institute for Brain Science, Allan Jones leads an ambitious project to build an open, online, interactive atlas of the human brain. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:15
Humans have long held a fascination
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人類長久以來對人腦
00:17
for the human brain.
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感到著迷。
00:19
We chart it, we've described it,
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我們試圖繪製它、解釋它、
00:22
we've drawn it,
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我們已經將它畫出來、
00:24
we've mapped it.
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已經繪製了它。
00:27
Now just like the physical maps of our world
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就像是真實事件的地圖一樣，
00:30
that have been highly influenced by technology --
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繪製腦袋圖也受科技影響很深--
00:33
think Google Maps,
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像是谷哥地圖,
00:35
think GPS --
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像是衛星定位--
00:37
the same thing is happening for brain mapping
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同樣的事情在繪製腦袋圖時
00:39
through transformation.
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也同樣在發生。
00:41
So let's take a look at the brain.
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所以讓我們來瞭解一下腦袋。
00:43
Most people, when they first look at a fresh human brain,
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很多人，當他們第一次看到人腦的時候
00:46
they say, "It doesn't look what you're typically looking at
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會說：「這不是一般人家給你看腦的時候
00:49
when someone shows you a brain."
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會看到的東西。」
00:51
Typically, what you're looking at is a fixed brain. It's gray.
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大部份時候你會看到的是已經固定的腦。是灰色的。
00:54
And this outer layer, this is the vasculature,
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這外面的這一層，這是微血管，
00:56
which is incredible, around a human brain.
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圍繞在腦袋邊緣, 非常驚人。
00:58
This is the blood vessels.
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這些是血管。
01:00
20 percent of the oxygen
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從肺中得到的
01:03
coming from your lungs,
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是百分之二十的氧氣、
01:05
20 percent of the blood pumped from your heart,
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百分之二十從你的心臟中泵出來的血液，
01:07
is servicing this one organ.
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都是供應給這個器官。
01:09
That's basically, if you hold two fists together,
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簡單的說, 如果你把你的兩個拳頭放在一起，
01:11
it's just slightly larger than the two fists.
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它僅僅比這兩個拳頭大一點點而已。
01:13
Scientists, sort of at the end of the 20th century,
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科學家在二十世紀末時
01:16
learned that they could track blood flow
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學到如何利用非侵入性的手法
01:18
to map non-invasively
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追蹤血液流向
01:21
where activity was going on in the human brain.
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來瞭解人腦正在工作的區域。
01:24
So for example, they can see in the back part of the brain,
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舉例來說，他們可以從腦部背後
01:27
which is just turning around there.
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這樣追蹤來到這裡。
01:29
There's the cerebellum; that's keeping you upright right now.
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這是小腦，就是讓你現在保持著頭上腳下姿勢的東西。
01:31
It's keeping me standing. It's involved in coordinated movement.
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它跟協調性動作有關，讓我現在可以站著。
01:34
On the side here, this is temporal cortex.
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在這裡是顳葉皮層。
01:37
This is the area where primary auditory processing --
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這裡跟聽覺處理有關：
01:40
so you're hearing my words,
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就是說你現在正在聽我講話，
01:42
you're sending it up into higher language processing centers.
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你把這個資訊送到語言處理中心。
01:44
Towards the front of the brain
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在腦的前面
01:46
is the place in which all of the more complex thought, decision making --
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是這個更複雜、跟做決定有關的東西。
01:49
it's the last to mature in late adulthood.
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它是最晚成熟的部位，直到成年時期才發育完成。
01:53
This is where all your decision-making processes are going on.
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這是你腦袋做所有決定的地方。
01:56
It's the place where you're deciding right now
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這是你現在正在決定
01:58
you probably aren't going to order the steak for dinner.
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你晚上是不是要點牛排當晚餐的地方。
02:01
So if you take a deeper look at the brain,
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所以如果你更進一步地看我們的腦袋，
02:03
one of the things, if you look at it in cross-section,
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如果你看這個切片圖，
02:05
what you can see
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你會看到
02:07
is that you can't really see a whole lot of structure there.
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這邊沒有很多結構。
02:10
But there's actually a lot of structure there.
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但事實上這邊是有很多結構的。
02:12
It's cells and it's wires all wired together.
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這些是細胞被串聯在一起。
02:14
So about a hundred years ago,
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大概在一百年前，
02:16
some scientists invented a stain that would stain cells.
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一些科學家發明了一個可以染細胞的染劑。
02:18
And that's shown here in the the very light blue.
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在這裡可以看到淡淡的藍色。
02:21
You can see areas
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你可以看到有些區域
02:23
where neuronal cell bodies are being stained.
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有著被染色的細胞。
02:25
And what you can see is it's very non-uniform. You see a lot more structure there.
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但你也可以看到它並不規律。你可以看到更多的結構。
02:28
So the outer part of that brain
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在腦袋的外層
02:30
is the neocortex.
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是大腦皮層。
02:32
It's one continuous processing unit, if you will.
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你可以說它是一個連續的單位。
02:35
But you can also see things underneath there as well.
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但你也可以看到在它下面還有很多其他的結構。
02:37
And all of these blank areas
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而這些空白的區域
02:39
are the areas in which the wires are running through.
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就是連接網絡經過的地方。
02:41
They're probably less cell dense.
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這些區域的細胞密度有可能比較低。
02:43
So there's about 86 billion neurons in our brain.
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所以我們腦袋中有86億個神經元。
02:47
And as you can see, they're very non-uniformly distributed.
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而且就像你們看到的，他們沒有非常規律地分佈。
02:50
And how they're distributed really contributes
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而他們如何分佈的
02:52
to their underlying function.
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事實上和他們的功能有關。
02:54
And of course, as I mentioned before,
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而且就像我之前提到的，
02:56
since we can now start to map brain function,
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因為我們已經開始繪製腦袋功能解析圖了，
02:59
we can start to tie these into the individual cells.
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我們可以試圖將這些細胞連接起來。
03:02
So let's take a deeper look.
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讓我們更進一步地觀察。
03:04
Let's look at neurons.
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讓我們看看這些神經元。
03:06
So as I mentioned, there are 86 billion neurons.
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就像我剛剛說的，我們有86億神經元。
03:08
There are also these smaller cells as you'll see.
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你們還可以看到還有這些更小的細胞。
03:10
These are support cells -- astrocytes glia.
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這些是支持細胞, 叫作星狀膠細胞。
03:12
And the nerves themselves
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但接收到訊息的
03:15
are the ones who are receiving input.
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是神經本身。
03:17
They're storing it, they're processing it.
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它們將訊息儲存並作處理。
03:19
Each neuron is connected via synapses
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每個神經元可經由突觸
03:23
to up to 10,000 other neurons in your brain.
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連接到最多一萬個其它也在腦部的神經元。
03:26
And each neuron itself
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且每一個神經元
03:28
is largely unique.
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都有它的獨特性。
03:30
The unique character of both individual neurons
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單一神經元和
03:32
and neurons within a collection of the brain
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某些聚在同一區域的神經元的獨特性
03:34
are driven by fundamental properties
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是源於基本的
03:37
of their underlying biochemistry.
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生化特性。
03:39
These are proteins.
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也就是蛋白質。
03:41
They're proteins that are controlling things like ion channel movement.
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蛋白質控制像是離子通道輸送功能這類的事情。
03:44
They're controlling who nervous system cells partner up with.
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蛋白質也決定神經系統與什麼東西合作。
03:48
And they're controlling
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基本上蛋白質控制了
03:50
basically everything that the nervous system has to do.
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所有與神經系統有關係的東西。
03:52
So if we zoom in to an even deeper level,
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所以如果我們更深入地看，
03:55
all of those proteins
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這些蛋白質
03:57
are encoded by our genomes.
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是由我們的基因所決定的。
03:59
We each have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
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我們有23對染色體。
04:02
We get one from mom, one from dad.
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其中一條來自於母親，另一條來自父親。
04:04
And on these chromosomes
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在這些染色體上，
04:06
are roughly 25,000 genes.
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大約有25,000個基因。
04:08
They're encoded in the DNA.
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這些基因被寫在DNA裡面。
04:10
And the nature of a given cell
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而細胞本質
04:13
driving its underlying biochemistry
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這些基層的生化組成，
04:15
is dictated by which of these 25,000 genes
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就是由這25,000個基因
04:18
are turned on
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來決定何時被啓動
04:20
and at what level they're turned on.
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及如何被啓動的。
04:22
And so our project
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所以我們的計畫
04:24
is seeking to look at this readout,
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就是研究這些結果，
04:27
understanding which of these 25,000 genes is turned on.
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試圖瞭解這25,000個基因中的哪一些是被啓動的。
04:30
So in order to undertake such a project,
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所以要做這樣的實驗，
04:33
we obviously need brains.
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我們明顯地需要腦袋。
04:36
So we sent our lab technician out.
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所以我們派了實驗室技師
04:39
We were seeking normal human brains.
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來幫我們搜集正常的人腦。
04:41
What we actually start with
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我們從法醫的辦公室
04:43
is a medical examiner's office.
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出發。
04:45
This a place where the dead are brought in.
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這是一個死人會被帶到的地方。
04:47
We are seeking normal human brains.
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我們想要正常的人腦。
04:49
There's a lot of criteria by which we're selecting these brains.
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我們對我們需要的腦袋有很多要求。
04:52
We want to make sure
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我們需要確定
04:54
that we have normal humans between the ages of 20 to 60,
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我們得到的腦袋是在20到60歲之間、
04:57
they died a somewhat natural death
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是自然死的、
04:59
with no injury to the brain,
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沒有任何腦部傷害、
05:01
no history of psychiatric disease,
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沒有任何心裡疾病、
05:03
no drugs on board --
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沒有長期用藥--
05:05
we do a toxicology workup.
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我們會要做一系列的毒物檢查。
05:07
And we're very careful
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且我們要非常謹慎地
05:09
about the brains that we do take.
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對待我們要拿的腦袋。
05:11
We're also selecting for brains
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我們選擇
05:13
in which we can get the tissue,
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可以從中拿到組織的腦袋，
05:15
we can get consent to take the tissue
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且我們需要在死亡後24小時內
05:17
within 24 hours of time of death.
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拿到取組織的許可。
05:19
Because what we're trying to measure, the RNA --
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因為我們想要測量的RNA（核糖核酸）
05:22
which is the readout from our genes --
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代表著各個基因的表現量--
05:24
is very labile,
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這是非常不穩定的，
05:26
and so we have to move very quickly.
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所以我們需要很快的速度完成實驗。
05:28
One side note on the collection of brains:
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另外一個值得一提的是：
05:31
because of the way that we collect,
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因為我們這樣的做法，
05:33
and because we require consent,
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也就是我們需要得到許可，
05:35
we actually have a lot more male brains than female brains.
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我們得到的男性腦袋遠多於女性腦袋。
05:38
Males are much more likely to die an accidental death in the prime of their life.
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男性比女性更有可能在壯年時期死於意外事件。
05:41
And men are much more likely
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而且男性比女性
05:43
to have their significant other, spouse, give consent
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更容易取得他的重要伴侶、另一半的許可
05:46
than the other way around.
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願意讓我們拿他的腦袋。
05:48
(Laughter)
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（笑聲）
05:52
So the first thing that we do at the site of collection
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在我們取到樣本後的第一件事情
05:54
is we collect what's called an MR.
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就是取得我們叫作MR的東西。
05:56
This is magnetic resonance imaging -- MRI.
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這是一張MRI也就是核磁共振影像。
05:58
It's a standard template by which we're going to hang the rest of this data.
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這是一張基準圖，我們用它來跟我們取得的影像做比較。
06:01
So we collect this MR.
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我們取得這個叫MR的東西。
06:03
And you can think of this as our satellite view for our map.
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你可以把這個想成是我們想要繪製的地圖的衛星圖。
06:05
The next thing we do
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接下來我們要做的是
06:07
is we collect what's called a diffusion tensor imaging.
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取得一個叫做彌散張量圖的東西。
06:10
This maps the large cabling in the brain.
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這可以幫忙繪製腦袋中比較明顯的連結。
06:12
And again, you can think of this
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你可以把這個想像成
06:14
as almost mapping our interstate highways, if you will.
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地圖上的高速公路。
06:16
The brain is removed from the skull,
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從頭骨中取出腦袋後，
06:18
and then it's sliced into one-centimeter slices.
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我們將之切成約一公分後的切片。
06:21
And those are frozen solid,
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這些切片冷凍後
06:23
and they're shipped to Seattle.
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被送到西雅圖。
06:25
And in Seattle, we take these --
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在西雅圖，我們會拿到這個，
06:27
this is a whole human hemisphere --
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這是整個人腦半球，
06:29
and we put them into what's basically a glorified meat slicer.
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然後把它放在一個基本上是切肉機的東西。
06:31
There's a blade here that's going to cut across
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這邊有刀片，可以從組織中
06:33
a section of the tissue
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切出一部份
06:35
and transfer it to a microscope slide.
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然後將它放到顯微鏡玻片上。
06:37
We're going to then apply one of those stains to it,
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用染劑將之染色後
06:39
and we scan it.
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就可以掃描了。
06:41
And then what we get is our first mapping.
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我們就可以得到第一張圖。
06:44
So this is where experts come in
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這裡是專業學者來
06:46
and they make basic anatomic assignments.
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將基本的結構標示出來的時候。
06:48
You could consider this state boundaries, if you will,
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你可以把這個想像成各州的界限，
06:51
those pretty broad outlines.
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就是那些很容易劃分的界限。
06:53
From this, we're able to then fragment that brain into further pieces,
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從這裡，我們可以開始將腦袋進一步分成幾個小部份，
06:57
which then we can put on a smaller cryostat.
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然後我們可以把這些部份分開存放於低溫存放器中。
06:59
And this is just showing this here --
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這就是在做這件事情：
07:01
this frozen tissue, and it's being cut.
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這是冷凍組織切片的過程。
07:03
This is 20 microns thin, so this is about a baby hair's width.
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這是20微米厚的切片，大約跟嬰兒頭髮一樣厚。
07:06
And remember, it's frozen.
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而且別忘了，這是冷凍的。
07:08
And so you can see here,
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所以在這裡你可以看到，
07:10
old-fashioned technology of the paintbrush being applied.
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古早的水彩筆方法被運用在這上面。
07:12
We take a microscope slide.
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我們拿一片玻片，
07:14
Then we very carefully melt onto the slide.
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很小心地將它熔在另一片玻片上。
07:17
This will then go onto a robot
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然後讓機器人
07:19
that's going to apply one of those stains to it.
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加入染劑。
07:26
And our anatomists are going to go in and take a deeper look at this.
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然後我們的解剖學家要更進一步的解析這個樣本。
07:29
So again this is what they can see under the microscope.
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這是我們在顯微鏡下看到的東西。
07:31
You can see collections and configurations
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你可以看到一些
07:33
of large and small cells
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大大小小的細胞
07:35
in clusters and various places.
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聚集在各處的一些構造。
07:37
And from there it's routine. They understand where to make these assignments.
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從這裡開始就是例行事務。這些學者知道各個結構應該在哪裡。
07:39
And they can make basically what's a reference atlas.
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他們可以建立一個像是圖鑒的東西。
07:42
This is a more detailed map.
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就是一個更精準的地圖。
07:44
Our scientists then use this
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我們的科學家利用這個資訊
07:46
to go back to another piece of that tissue
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再回到原本的樣本
07:49
and do what's called laser scanning microdissection.
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並做雷射切割。
07:51
So the technician takes the instructions.
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技師得到這個指令，
07:54
They scribe along a place there.
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他們在這裡劃線，
07:56
And then the laser actually cuts.
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也就是雷射切割的地方。
07:58
You can see that blue dot there cutting. And that tissue falls off.
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你可以看到這些雷射切割的藍點，然後整個組織會被切下。
08:01
You can see on the microscope slide here,
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你可以從這個影片看到
08:03
that's what's happening in real time.
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顯微玻片上發生的事情。
08:05
There's a container underneath that's collecting that tissue.
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在這個下面有個桶子會接住所有切下的組織。
08:08
We take that tissue,
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我們利用一些簡單的技術
08:10
we purify the RNA out of it
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將這個組織中的
08:12
using some basic technology,
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RNA純化，
08:14
and then we put a florescent tag on it.
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然後加上螢光顯色。
08:16
We take that tagged material
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我們將顯色的東西
08:18
and we put it on to something called a microarray.
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放到一個叫做芯片的東西上。
08:21
Now this may look like a bunch of dots to you,
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你們可能會覺得這看起來像是一堆點點,
08:23
but each one of these individual dots
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但這上面每一個點
08:25
is actually a unique piece of the human genome
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都代表著人類基因的一個片段。
08:27
that we spotted down on glass.
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每個片段都被我們點在玻片上。
08:29
This has roughly 60,000 elements on it,
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這上面大約有60,000個元素，
08:32
so we repeatedly measure various genes
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所以我們一直重複著測量
08:35
of the 25,000 genes in the genome.
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基因組中25,000個基因的表現量。
08:37
And when we take a sample and we hybridize it to it,
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當我們拿一個樣本並將它跟芯片中的片段配對，
08:40
we get a unique fingerprint, if you will,
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我們可以得到一個像是指紋般特殊的組合，
08:42
quantitatively of what genes are turned on in that sample.
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可以告訴我們樣本中哪些基因是被啓動的。
08:45
Now we do this over and over again,
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我們對每一個我們拿到的腦袋
08:47
this process for any given brain.
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重複這件事情。
08:50
We're taking over a thousand samples for each brain.
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我們可以從一個腦袋中取得超過一千個樣本。
08:53
This area shown here is an area called the hippocampus.
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這個部位叫作海馬迴。
08:56
It's involved in learning and memory.
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它跟學習和記憶有關。
08:58
And it contributes to about 70 samples
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在我們的一千個樣本中，
09:01
of those thousand samples.
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它大概佔了七十個。
09:03
So each sample gets us about 50,000 data points
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所以我們大約有一千個樣本，
09:07
with repeat measurements, a thousand samples.
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每個樣本可以給我們大約50,000個點。
09:10
So roughly, we have 50 million data points
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所以每一個腦袋
09:12
for a given human brain.
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我們大約有五千萬個點。
09:14
We've done right now
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目前我們大概做了
09:16
two human brains-worth of data.
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兩個人腦多的數據。
09:18
We've put all of that together
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我們把這些數據
09:20
into one thing,
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合成一體，
09:22
and I'll show you what that synthesis looks like.
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且我會給你們看我們怎麼做的。
09:24
It's basically a large data set of information
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基本上就是一個很大的數據組，
09:27
that's all freely available to any scientist around the world.
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讓世界上所有科學家都可以用的數據。
09:30
They don't even have to log in to come use this tool,
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他們不需要登入就可以使用、
09:33
mine this data, find interesting things out with this.
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挖掘、尋找他們想要的東西。
09:37
So here's the modalities that we put together.
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這是我們目前建構出來的模型。
09:40
You'll start to recognize these things from what we've collected before.
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你們會開始認識這些我們蒐集來的東西。
09:43
Here's the MR. It provides the framework.
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這是MR，它給我們一個骨架。
09:45
There's an operator side on the right that allows you to turn,
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在右邊這裡可以控制讓圖轉動，
09:48
it allows you to zoom in,
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可以讓你放大，
09:50
it allows you to highlight individual structures.
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也可以將特定的區域上色。
09:53
But most importantly,
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但更重要的是，
09:55
we're now mapping into this anatomic framework,
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我們是從這樣的解剖骨架來繪製我們的圖，
09:58
which is a common framework for people to understand where genes are turned on.
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一個人類用來瞭解基因在何處被啓動的骨架。
10:01
So the red levels
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這些紅色的
10:03
are where a gene is turned on to a great degree.
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是基因表現量很高的地方。
10:05
Green is the sort of cool areas where it's not turned on.
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綠色是基因沒有被啓動的地方。
10:08
And each gene gives us a fingerprint.
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而每一個基因給我們一個類似指紋的東西。
10:10
And remember that we've assayed all the 25,000 genes in the genome
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別忘了我們已經對基因組裡面25,000個基因做了這樣的實驗，
10:15
and have all of that data available.
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所以我們有所有基因的資料。
10:19
So what can scientists learn about this data?
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那, 科學家們可以從這學到什麼？
10:21
We're just starting to look at this data ourselves.
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我們也是才剛開始瞭解這些資料的。
10:24
There's some basic things that you would want to understand.
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有一些較基本的是你們可能會想要知道的。
10:27
Two great examples are drugs,
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兩個很棒的例子是藥物：
10:29
Prozac and Wellbutrin.
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百憂解和Wellbutrin(抗憂鬱藥物）。
10:31
These are commonly prescribed antidepressants.
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這些是常被用來治療憂鬱的藥物。
10:34
Now remember, we're assaying genes.
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別忘了我們是在瞭解基因。
10:36
Genes send the instructions to make proteins.
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基因告訴我們的身體要製造蛋白質。
10:39
Proteins are targets for drugs.
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蛋白質是藥物的目標。
10:41
So drugs bind to proteins
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也就是說藥物和蛋白質結合
10:43
and either turn them off, etc.
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然後可以抑制蛋白質作用之類的。
10:45
So if you want to understand the action of drugs,
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所以如果你想要瞭解藥物是如何運作的，
10:47
you want to understand how they're acting in the ways you want them to,
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你需要瞭解藥物是怎麼樣做到你想要它做的事,
10:50
and also in the ways you don't want them to.
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和你不希望藥物做的事。
10:52
In the side effect profile, etc.,
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像是副作用之類的。
10:54
you want to see where those genes are turned on.
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你想要知道各個基因是如何被啓動的。
10:56
And for the first time, we can actually do that.
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而且是有史以来，我們真的可以這麼做。
10:58
We can do that in multiple individuals that we've assayed too.
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且我們可以對不只一個樣本怎麼做。
11:01
So now we can look throughout the brain.
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所以現在我們可以來看這個腦袋。
11:04
We can see this unique fingerprint.
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我們可以看這些特異的指紋。
11:06
And we get confirmation.
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我們可以確認它。
11:08
We get confirmation that, indeed, the gene is turned on --
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我們可以確認某些特定的基因是被啓動的：
11:11
for something like Prozac,
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像是百憂解這樣的東西，
11:13
in serotonergic structures, things that are already known be affected --
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它有羥色胺結構、我們已經知道會有影響，
11:16
but we also get to see the whole thing.
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但我們在這裡也可以看到整個架構。
11:18
We also get to see areas that no one has ever looked at before,
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我們可以看到以前看不到的東西，
11:20
and we see these genes turned on there.
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我們可以看到這些基因被啓動。
11:22
It's as interesting a side effect as it could be.
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這也有可能是很有趣的副作用。
11:25
One other thing you can do with such a thing
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另外一個你可以做的事是
11:27
is you can, because it's a pattern matching exercise,
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你可以從這些資料中找出相關的部份。
11:30
because there's unique fingerprint,
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因為這樣的指紋是獨特的，
11:32
we can actually scan through the entire genome
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我們可以掃過整個基因組
11:34
and find other proteins
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並尋找其他有相似指紋
11:36
that show a similar fingerprint.
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的蛋白質。
11:38
So if you're in drug discovery, for example,
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舉例來說如果你是在做藥物研發，
11:41
you can go through
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你可以
11:43
an entire listing of what the genome has on offer
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掃過整個基因組
11:45
to find perhaps better drug targets and optimize.
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然後試著找到更好的藥物的目標而從中優化。
11:49
Most of you are probably familiar
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在座的各位
11:51
with genome-wide association studies
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可能對於掃描整個基因組的觀念
11:53
in the form of people covering in the news
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來自於新聞中一些字句。
11:56
saying, "Scientists have recently discovered the gene or genes
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像是：「科學家最近找到一個基因
11:59
which affect X."
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會影響Ｘ。」
12:01
And so these kinds of studies
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這樣的研究
12:03
are routinely published by scientists
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常常被科學家發表。
12:05
and they're great. They analyze large populations.
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且這是很好的。他們可以分析很大的族群。
12:07
They look at their entire genomes,
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他們可以看整個基因組，
12:09
and they try to find hot spots of activity
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然後試圖找到一些基因
12:11
that are linked causally to genes.
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容易影響的地方。
12:14
But what you get out of such an exercise
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但事實上這樣的研究
12:16
is simply a list of genes.
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只能找到一張基因列表。
12:18
It tells you the what, but it doesn't tell you the where.
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它告訴你什麼基因，但沒辦法告訴你在哪裡表現。
12:21
And so it's very important for those researchers
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所以對這些研究者來說，
12:24
that we've created this resource.
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我們就是給他們一個資源。
12:26
Now they can come in
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現在他們可以來
12:28
and they can start to get clues about activity.
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並開始尋找這些表現的痕跡。
12:30
They can start to look at common pathways --
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他們現在可以去看是不是有共同的路徑，
12:32
other things that they simply haven't been able to do before.
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是不是有其它他們沒有找到的東西。
12:36
So I think this audience in particular
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所以我想在座的各位
12:39
can understand the importance of individuality.
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可以理解個體差異的重要性。
12:42
And I think every human,
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我認為每一個人
12:44
we all have different genetic backgrounds,
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都有不一樣的基因背景，
12:48
we all have lived separate lives.
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我們都有不一樣的人生。
12:50
But the fact is
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但事實上，
12:52
our genomes are greater than 99 percent similar.
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我們的基因組有超過百分之九十九是一樣的。
12:55
We're similar at the genetic level.
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在基因的層面下我們非常相似。
12:58
And what we're finding
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而我們現在看到的是，
13:00
is actually, even at the brain biochemical level,
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就算是在腦袋的生化層面上，
13:02
we are quite similar.
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我們也是非常相似的。
13:04
And so this shows it's not 99 percent,
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所以這代表著不是百分之九十九，
13:06
but it's roughly 90 percent correspondence
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但大約百分之九十
13:08
at a reasonable cutoff,
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是個非常合理的範圍，
13:11
so everything in the cloud is roughly correlated.
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也就是說大部份的東西是相似的。
13:13
And then we find some outliers,
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然後我們會找到一些「局外人」,
13:15
some things that lie beyond the cloud.
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就是那些不在範圍內的數據。
13:18
And those genes are interesting,
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且這些基因是很有趣的，
13:20
but they're very subtle.
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但他們不是很明顯的。
13:22
So I think it's an important message
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所以我想這是我今天要說的
13:25
to take home today
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一件很重要的事情
13:27
that even though we celebrate all of our differences,
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就是就算我們認為我們之間很不同，
13:30
we are quite similar
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但事實上我們是很相似的，
13:32
even at the brain level.
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就算是在腦袋層面也是。
13:34
Now what do those differences look like?
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這些相異處是什麼呢？
13:36
This is an example of a study that we did
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這是一個我們做的
13:38
to follow up and see what exactly those differences were --
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用來瞭解這些相異處是什麼的研究。
13:40
and they're quite subtle.
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這些相異處是很不明顯的。
13:42
These are things where genes are turned on in an individual cell type.
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像是各種不同細胞的哪些基因被啓動了。
13:46
These are two genes that we found as good examples.
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這是我們找到兩個比較好的例子。
13:49
One is called RELN -- it's involved in early developmental cues.
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一個是RELN，它跟早期發育有關。
13:52
DISC1 is a gene
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DISC1也是個基因，
13:54
that's deleted in schizophrenia.
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是在精神分裂患者中被移除的基因。
13:56
These aren't schizophrenic individuals,
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這些不是精神分裂患者，
13:58
but they do show some population variation.
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但他們也有個體差異。
14:01
And so what you're looking at here
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所以你們現在看到的是
14:03
in donor one and donor four,
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第一個捐贈者和第四個捐贈者。
14:05
which are the exceptions to the other two,
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它們的基因跟另外兩個不同，
14:07
that genes are being turned on
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他們的基因
14:09
in a very specific subset of cells.
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在非常特定的細胞被啓動。
14:11
It's this dark purple precipitate within the cell
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這些細胞內的深紫色的沈澱物
14:14
that's telling us a gene is turned on there.
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告訴我們那裡有哪些基因被啓動。
14:17
Whether or not that's due
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但到底是跟個體基因行有關
14:19
to an individual's genetic background or their experiences,
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還是跟他們的經驗有關，
14:21
we don't know.
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我們不知道。
14:23
Those kinds of studies require much larger populations.
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這樣的研究需要更多更多的個體。
14:28
So I'm going to leave you with a final note
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所以我要跟你們說的最後一件事是
14:30
about the complexity of the brain
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腦袋有多麼的複雜
14:33
and how much more we have to go.
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和我們還還有多少研究需要做。
14:35
I think these resources are incredibly valuable.
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我認為這些資源非常重要。
14:37
They give researchers a handle
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這些資源讓研究者
14:39
on where to go.
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知道接下來要怎麼做。
14:41
But we only looked at a handful of individuals at this point.
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但目前我們只看了一些個體。
14:44
We're certainly going to be looking at more.
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我們將來當然會看更多。
14:46
I'll just close by saying
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我最後只能說
14:48
that the tools are there,
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我們需要的工具已經有了，
14:50
and this is truly an unexplored, undiscovered continent.
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而且這是一個還沒被瞭解、還沒被研究的課題。
14:54
This is the new frontier, if you will.
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這是一個新推進。
14:58
And so for those who are undaunted,
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所以給那些沒被嚇倒
15:00
but humbled by the complexity of the brain,
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但仍然對腦袋很感興趣的各位，
15:02
the future awaits.
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未來就在此。
15:04
Thanks.
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謝謝。
15:06
(Applause)
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（掌聲）
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Allan Jones - Brain scientistAs CEO of the Allen Institute for Brain Science, Allan Jones leads an ambitious project to build an open, online, interactive atlas of the human brain.
Why you should listen
The Allen Institute for Brain Science -- based in Seattle, kickstarted by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen -- has a mission to fuel discoveries about the human brain by building tools the entire scientific community can use. As CEO, one of Allan Jones' first projects was to lead the drive to create a comprehensive atlas of the brain of a mouse. Flash forward to April 2011, when the Allen Institute announced the first milestone in its online interactive atlas of the human brain, showing the activity of the more than 20,000 human genes it contains. It's based on a composite of 15 brains, since every human brain is unique.
Think of the Allen Human Brain Atlas as a high-tech bridge between brain anatomy and genetics. Using this atlas, scientists will be able to determine where in the brain genes that encode specific proteins are active, including proteins that are affected by medication. Or researchers could zoom in on brain structures thought to be altered in mental disorders such as schizophrenia to find their molecular footprint. The atlas may provide clues to memory, attention, motor coordination, hunger, and perhaps emotions such as happiness or anxiety.
He says: "Understanding how our genes are used in our brains will help scientists and the medical community better understand and discover new treatments for the full spectrum of brain diseases and disorders."
Watch Dr. Jones' latest TEDx talk on the map of the brain, from TEDxCaltech 2013 >>
Allan Jones | Speaker | TED.com