TEDMED 2012
Diane Kelly: What we didn't know about penis anatomy
Diane Kelly: 關於我們不知道的那些陰莖結構學
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我們在解剖學上還沒走到盡頭。我們在基因學，蛋白質生物學以及細胞生物學上知道很多東西，但就像 Diane Kelly 在 TEDMED 上很清楚的表達的，我們還有很多關於人類身體的基本知識需要學習。 而說明這些的例子： 哺乳動物的勃起是怎樣運作的？
Diane Kelly - Biologist
Diane Kelly studies vertebrate anatomy, in particular the connection between the design and the function of reproductive organs. Full bio
Diane Kelly studies vertebrate anatomy, in particular the connection between the design and the function of reproductive organs. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:15
When I go to parties,
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每當我去參加聚會，
00:17
it doesn't usually take very long
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人們不需要多久
00:19
for people to find out
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便會發現
00:20
that I'm a scientist and I study sex.
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我是一位科學家，還是研究性學的。
00:23
And then I get asked questions.
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然後我就會被問一些問題。
00:28
And the questions usually have a very particular format.
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而這些問題通常有一定相似的模式。
00:31
They start with the phrase,
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它們以這樣一個語句開始，
00:32
"A friend told me,"
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“一個朋友告訴過我”，
00:34
and then they end with the phrase,
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然後他們會這樣結束這個問題，
00:36
"Is this true?"
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“這是真的嗎？”
00:38
And most of the time
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大部份時間，
00:39
I'm glad to say that I can answer them,
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我為我可以解答這些問題而感到開心，
00:41
but sometimes I have to say,
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但有些時候我必須說，
00:43
"I'm really sorry,
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“對不起，
00:44
but I don't know
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但是我的確不知道，
00:46
because I'm not that kind of a doctor."
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因為我不是做那一行的醫生。”
00:49
That is, I'm not a clinician,
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是的，我並不是臨床醫師，
00:51
I'm a comparative biologist who studies anatomy.
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我是一位學習解剖學的比較生物學家。
00:54
And my job is to look at lots of different species of animals
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而我的工作便是觀察很多不同種類的物種的
00:57
and try to figure out how their tissues and organs work
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軟組織和器官，然後試圖理解當
01:00
when everything's going right,
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生理正常時它們是怎麼運作的，
01:02
rather than trying to figure out
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而不是在它們出問題後
01:03
how to fix things when they go wrong,
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找出以及解決問題，
01:05
like so many of you.
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就像在座很多人所做的一般。
01:06
And what I do is I look for similarities and differences
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而我所做的是研究不同的物種在遇到基本的
01:08
in the solutions that they've evolved
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生物問題時如何進化出一樣或者
01:11
for fundamental biological problems.
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不同的解決方式。
01:12
So today I'm here to argue
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所以今天我想說
01:14
that this is not at all
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雖然這不是一個
01:18
an esoteric Ivory Tower activity
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在我們很多的大學中都可以找到的
01:20
that we find at our universities,
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深奧的象牙塔學問，
01:21
but that broad study
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但如此的關於物種，
01:23
across species, tissue types and organ systems
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組織以及器官系統的廣義研究
01:26
can produce insights
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能夠產生對於人類健康有著
01:28
that have direct implications for human health.
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直接影響的信息。
01:31
And this is true both of my recent project
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而這點對於我近期的學習
01:34
on sex differences in the brain,
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不同性別的大腦區別的項目來說，
01:35
and my more mature work
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又或者我研究時間更長的
01:37
on the anatomy and function of penises.
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關於陰莖的解剖結構以及功能，都是成立的。
01:40
And now you know why I'm fun at parties.
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現在你知道我爲什麽在聚會中很受歡迎。
01:43
(Laughter)
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（笑聲）
01:44
So today I'm going to give you an example
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今天我將介紹一個從我的陰莖研究中
01:46
drawn from my penis study
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得出來的例子，
01:48
to show you how knowledge
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來告訴你們從
01:49
drawn from studies of one organ system
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一個器官系統的研究中得到的知識
01:51
provided insights into a very different one.
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是如何提供另外一個完全不同的系統的信息的。
01:54
Now I'm sure as everyone in the audience already knows --
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現在，就像在座的各位已經知道的 --
01:57
I did have to explain it to my nine-year-old late last week --
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上個星期我需要像我的9歲的小孩解釋 --
02:01
penises are structures that transfer sperm
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陰莖的作用便是將精液從
02:04
from one individual to another.
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一個人傳送到另外一個人。
02:06
And the slide behind me
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而在我身後的幻燈片
02:07
barely scratches the surface
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未介紹到在自然界中這種現象發生的
02:09
of how widespread they are in animals.
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頻率的千萬分之一。
02:11
There's an enormous amount of anatomical variation.
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它有著很大的結構差異。
02:13
You find muscular tubes, modified legs, modified fins,
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你會找到肌肉管道，改造過的腿，改造過的鳍，
02:17
as well as the mammalian fleshy, inflatable cylinder
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又或者是我們所熟悉的哺乳動物的肉質的，
02:21
that we're all familiar with --
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可膨脹的圓柱體 --
02:22
or at least half of you are.
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至少你們中間的一半吧。
02:24
(Laughter)
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（笑聲）·
02:27
And I think we see this tremendous variation
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而我們相信我們所看到的這種巨大的差異的原因
02:30
because it's a really effective solution
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在於讓精子在一個特定的位置
02:33
to a very basic biological problem,
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遇到卵子并成為受精卵
02:35
and that is getting sperm in a position
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是解決一個非常基本的生物問題的
02:37
to meet up with eggs and form zygotes.
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一個很有效的辦法。
02:40
Now the penis isn't actually required for internal fertiliztion,
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體內受精并不一定需要陰莖，
02:44
but when internal fertilization evolves,
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但當體內受精進化的時候，
02:46
penises often follow.
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陰莖通常緊隨其後。
02:48
And the question I get when I start talking about this most often is,
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而每當我講到這個話題，我得到的最多的問題是，
02:53
"What made you interested in this subject?"
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“是什麽讓你對這個話題科感興趣的？”
02:56
And the answer is skeletons.
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而答案是骨骼。
03:00
You wouldn't think that skeletons and penises
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你可能覺得骨骼和陰莖
03:02
have very much to do with one another.
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并沒有什麽共同之處。
03:04
And that's because we tend to think of skeletons
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那是因為我們仍然覺得骨骼是
03:06
as stiff lever systems
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一種產生速度和力量的
03:08
that produce speed or power.
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杠杆系統。
03:09
And my first forays into biological research,
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而我在生物學做的最初的研究之一，
03:13
doing dinosaur paleontology as an undergraduate,
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在本科是學習恐龍古生物學，
03:16
were really squarely in that realm.
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便是在這個範圍之內。
03:17
But when I went to graduate school to study biomechanics,
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但當我在研究生是學習生物力學時，
03:21
I really wanted to find a dissertation project
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我非常想找到一個可以增加我們對於
03:23
that would expand our knowledge of skeletal function.
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骨骼功能的知識的項目。
03:26
I tried a bunch of different stuff.
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我嘗試很多不同的東西。
03:28
A lot of it didn't pan out.
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有很多都沒有成功。
03:29
But then one day I started thinking
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但有一天我想到了
03:31
about the mammalian penis.
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哺乳動物的陰莖。
03:33
And it's really an odd sort of structure.
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它其實有一個很奇怪的構造。
03:37
Before it can be used for internal fertilization,
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在它能為體內受精做出貢獻之前，
03:40
its mechanical behavior has to change
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它的機械運作必須
03:41
in a really dramatic fashion.
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有跨越性的變化。
03:43
Most of the time it's a flexible organ.
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大部份時間它都是一個靈活的器官。
03:46
It's easy to bend.
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它很容易彎曲。
03:47
But before it's brought into use
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但在它可以在交配中
03:49
during copulation
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被使用之前
03:50
it has to become rigid,
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它必須變的堅硬，
03:52
it has to become difficult to bend.
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並且難以彎曲。
03:54
And moreover, it has to work.
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更重要的，它必須可以工作。
03:56
A reproductive system that fails to function
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一個不可以使用的生殖系統
03:59
produces an individual that has no offspring,
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帶來的是一個不能生育下一代的個體。
04:02
and that individual is then kicked out of the gene pool.
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而這個個體會被從基因庫中被剔除。
04:05
And so I thought, "Here's a problem
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所以我想到，“這個問題
04:08
that just cries out for a skeletal system --
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似乎完全需要一個骨骼系統的解決方式 --
04:11
not one like this one,
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不是像這樣的，
04:14
but one like this one --
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而是像這樣的 --
04:17
because, functionally,
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因為，功能上來說，
04:20
a skeleton is any system
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一個骨骼是任何可以
04:21
that supports tissue and transmits forces.
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支撐軟組織并傳送力的系統。
04:24
And I already knew that animals like this earthworm,
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而我已經知道像蚯蚓一樣的動物，
04:26
indeed most animals,
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事實上大部份動物，
04:28
don't support their tissues
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都不不用骨頭來
04:29
by draping them over bones.
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支撐它們的軟組織。
04:31
Instead they're more like reinforced water balloons.
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反之，它們更像加強后的水氣球般。
04:34
They use a skeleton that we call a hydrostatic skeleton.
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它們用一個我們稱為铃静力骨架的骨骼系統。
04:38
And a hydrostatic skeleton
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而一個铃静力骨架
04:40
uses two elements.
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有著兩個要素。
04:42
The skeletal support comes from an interaction
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骨骼支撐性來自一種壓縮后的液體
04:44
between a pressurized fluid
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以及它周圍的組織牆壁
04:46
and a surrounding wall of tissue
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的互相影響
04:47
that's held in tension and reinforced with fibrous proteins.
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產生的拉力，并被纖維性蛋白質加強。
04:52
And the interaction is crucial.
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而這種相互影響非常重要。
04:54
Without both elements you have no support.
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兩者少一而你便不會有支撐力。
04:57
If you have fluid
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如果你有液體，
04:59
with no wall to surround it
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但沒有環繞的可以產生
05:01
and keep pressure up,
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壓力的墻，
05:02
you have a puddle.
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你有的只是水坑。
05:04
And if you have just the wall
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但如果你只有墻
05:06
with no fluid inside of it to put the wall in tension,
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而裏面沒有液體對墻造成壓力，
05:08
you've got a little wet rag.
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你只有一個微濕的架構。
05:10
When you look at a penis in cross section,
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當你觀察陰莖的橫切面時，
05:12
it has a lot of the hallmarks
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它有很多铃静力骨架
05:15
of a hydrostatic skeleton.
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的特徵。
05:17
It has a central space
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它的中心空間中
05:18
of spongy erectile tissue
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有一個充滿了液體的
05:20
that fills with fluid -- in this case blood --
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可勃起海綿體軟組織 -- 血液 --
05:22
surrounded by a wall of tissue
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被有著豐富的結構性膠原蛋白
05:25
that's rich in a stiff structural protein called collagen.
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的軟組織墻包圍。
05:29
But at the time when I started this project,
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但當我開始這個研究課題的時候，
05:31
the best explanation I could find for penal erection
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我可以找到的最好的陰莖勃起的理由是
05:34
was that the wall surrounded these spongy tissues,
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因為包住海綿體組織的肉壁
05:39
and the spongy tissues filled with blood
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在海綿體組織充血時
05:40
and pressure rose and voila! it became erect.
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與它產生壓力然後造成勃起。
05:44
And that explained to me expansion --
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而這個現象解釋了擴張 --
05:48
made sense: more fluid, you get tissues that expand --
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軟組織因為充斥更多的液體而膨脹 --
05:51
but it didn't actually explain erection.
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但它其實並不解釋勃起的現象。
05:54
Because there was no mechanism in this explanation
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因為在這個解釋中并沒有任何一個可以
05:58
for making this structure hard to bend.
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讓這個結構變堅硬的途徑。
06:01
And no one had systematically looked at the wall tissue.
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而之前沒有人系統的觀察過構成牆壁的組織。
06:04
So I thought, wall tissue's important in skeletons.
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所以我想，壁組織在骨骼中很重要。
06:06
It has to be part of the explanation.
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它肯定也在這裡有著重要的功用。
06:09
And this was the point
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而在這點上
06:11
at which my graduate adviser said,
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我的導師說，
06:14
"Whoa! Hold on. Slow down."
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“等等，慢點。”
06:17
Because after about six months of me talking about this,
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因為在我6個月中斷斷續續的談起這個話題后，
06:21
I think he finally figured out
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我想他終於明白
06:22
that I was really serious about the penis thing.
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我對這個陰莖的項目是很認真的。
06:25
(Laughter)
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（笑聲）
06:28
So he sat me down, and he warned me.
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所以他讓我坐下，然後他提醒了我。
06:30
He was like, "Be careful going down this path.
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他說，“決定這麼做之前先想清楚了。
06:32
I'm not sure this project's going to pan out."
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我不確定這個項目是否會有結果。”
06:35
Because he was afraid I was walking into a trap.
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因為我怕我正在走入一個圈套。
06:38
I was taking on a socially embarrassing question
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我想挑戰一個在社會上尷尬的問題，
06:42
with an answer that he thought
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而他覺得這個問題的答案
06:45
might not be particularly interesting.
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不怎麼會有意義。
06:47
And that was because
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而這時因為
06:49
every hydrostatic skeleton
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到目前為止，我們
06:50
that we had found in nature up to that point
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在自然中找到的每一個铃静力骨架
06:52
had the same basic elements.
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都有著同樣的元素。
06:54
It had the central fluid,
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它有著一個中央液體，
06:55
it had the surrounding wall,
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環繞的組織壁，
06:57
and the reinforcing fibers in the wall
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並且組織壁中的強化纖維
07:00
were arranged in crossed helices
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都已交叉螺旋結構排列在
07:03
around the long axis of the skeleton.
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骨骼的長軸上。
07:05
So the image behind me
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在我身後的圖片
07:06
shows a piece of tissue
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是一個當你
07:08
in one of these cross helical skeletons
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切開組織并看著它的表面時
07:10
cut so that you're looking at the surface of the wall.
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這種交叉螺旋骨骼組織的樣子。
07:12
The arrow shows you the long axis.
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箭頭指的是長軸。
07:14
And you can see two layers of fibers,
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你可以看到兩層纖維，
07:16
one in blue and one in yellow,
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一個藍色一個黃色，
07:17
arranged in left-handed and right-handed angles.
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以左手和右手角度排列著。
07:20
And if you weren't just looking at a little section of the fibers,
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而如果你不只是看一小片纖維的切面，
07:22
those fibers would be going in helices
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這些纖維會已螺旋的方式
07:25
around the long axis of the skeleton --
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包圍著骨骼的長軸 --
07:27
something like a Chinese finger trap,
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有點像中國指套，
07:29
where you stick your fingers in and they get stuck.
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當你將手指放入時它會被卡住。
07:31
And these skeletons have a particular set of behaviors,
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而這些骨骼有一套特殊的行為，
07:34
which I'm going to demonstrate in a film.
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我將在以下的短片中展示它。
07:36
It's a model skeleton
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這是一個
07:37
that I made out of a piece of cloth
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我用一張布料纏繞著一個充氣了的氣球
07:39
that I wrapped around an inflated balloon.
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做成的骨骼模型。
07:42
The cloth's cut on the bias.
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布料是斜裁的。
07:44
So you can see that the fibers wrap in helices,
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所以你可以看到纖維以螺旋式纏繞，
07:46
and those fibers can reorient as the skeleton moves,
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而這些纖維可以在骨骼運動時重新適應，
07:51
which means the skeleton's flexible.
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所以骨骼是柔韌的。
07:52
It lengthens, shortens and bends really easily
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在內部或者外部的力下，
07:55
in response to internal or external forces.
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它可以輕易的拉長，縮短以及彎曲。
07:58
Now my adviser's concern
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而我的導師的擔憂便是
07:59
was what if the penile wall tissue
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陰莖的壁組織會和
08:02
is just the same as any other hydrostatic skeleton.
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其他的铃静力骨架結構 一樣。
08:04
What are you going to contribute?
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你對這方面的知識可以貢獻什麽呢？
08:05
What new thing are you contributing
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你對生物的知識
08:07
to our knowledge of biology?
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可以貢獻什麽新的信息嗎？
08:09
And I thought, "Yeah, he does have a really good point here."
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我想，“他的想法的確是對的。”
08:12
So I spent a long, long time thinking about it.
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所以我花了很長很長的時間去思考這件事。
08:14
And one thing kept bothering me,
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但有一件事情持續的困擾著我，
08:16
and that's, when they're functioning,
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那就是，當它在運作的時候，
08:18
penises don't wiggle.
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陰莖們不會擺動。
08:20
(Laughter)
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（笑聲）
08:23
So something interesting had to be going on.
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所以這裏面肯定有什麽有意思的事情。
08:25
So I went ahead, collected wall tissue,
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所以我決定繼續，收集了壁組織，
08:29
prepared it so it was erect,
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將它預備成勃起時的狀態，
08:30
sectioned it, put it on slides
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橫切了它，把它放在玻璃片下
08:33
and then stuck it under the microscope to have a look,
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然後放在顯微鏡下來觀察，
08:35
fully expecting to see crossed helices of collagen of some variety.
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完全的指望著看到類似交叉螺旋形的膠原蛋白排列。
08:40
But instead I saw this.
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但我卻看到了這個。
08:43
There's an outer layer and an inner layer.
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它有著一個外層和一個內層。
08:46
The arrow shows you the long axis of the skeleton.
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箭頭指出骨骼的長軸。
08:48
I was really surprised at this.
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我被這驚訝到了。
08:51
Everyone I showed it
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每個看到的人
08:52
was really surprised at this.
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都很驚訝。
08:53
Why was everyone surprised at this?
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爲什麽每個人都很訝異？
08:54
That's because we knew theoretically
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那是因為我們知道另外一種
08:57
that there was another way
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理論上的
09:00
of arranging fibers in a hydrostatic skeleton,
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铃静力骨架的纖維排列方式，
09:03
and that was with fibers at zero degrees
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那就是當纖維以和物體長軸的0度
09:06
and 90 degrees to the long axis of the structure.
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和90度的角度排列。
09:09
The thing is, no one had ever seen it before in nature.
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但是沒有人在自然中觀察到過這種結構。
09:13
And now I was looking at one.
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而現在我正在看著它。
09:16
Those fibers in that particular orientation
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這些在這種特殊的排列方向的纖維
09:18
give the skeleton a very, very different behavior.
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帶給骨骼一種完全不同的行為。
09:22
I'm going to show a model
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讓我來展示一個
09:23
made out of exactly the same materials.
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用完全一樣的材料製作的模型。
09:25
So it'll be made of the same cotton cloth,
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一樣的棉布料，
09:27
same balloon, same internal pressure.
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一樣的氣球，一樣的內部壓力。
09:30
But the only difference
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而唯一不同的是
09:33
is that the fibers are arranged differently.
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纖維的排列方式的不同。
09:35
And you'll see that, unlike the cross helical model,
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而你可以看到，不像交叉螺旋的模型，
09:38
this model resists extension and contraction
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這個模型抗拒拉長，收縮，
09:41
and resists bending.
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以及彎曲。
09:42
Now what that tells us
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而這告訴我們
09:43
is that wall tissues are doing so much more
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壁組織不僅僅是
09:45
than just covering the vascular tissues.
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覆蓋著微管組織。
09:48
They're an integral part of the penile skeleton.
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它們是陰莖骨骼中很重要的一部份。
09:51
If the wall around the erectile tissue wasn't there,
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如果勃起組織周圍的壁組織不在，
09:54
if it wasn't reinforced in this way,
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或者它是以另外一種方式加強的，
09:56
the shape would change,
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它的形狀會不同，
09:57
but the inflated penis would not resist bending,
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但充血的陰莖不會抗拒彎曲，
09:59
and erection simply wouldn't work.
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勃起也不會成功。
10:01
It's an observation with obvious medical applications
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這個觀察也對人類有著
10:04
in humans as well,
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明顯的醫療運用，
10:06
but it's also relevant in a broad sense, I think,
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但我覺得他們在廣義上也很重要，
10:09
to the design of prosthetics, soft robots,
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比如義肢的設計，軟機器人，
10:11
basically anything
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基本上所有的
10:12
where changes of shape and stiffness are important.
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形狀和硬度的改變很重要的東西。
10:16
So to sum up:
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所以，結論便是：
10:17
Twenty years ago,
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20年前，
10:19
I had a college adviser tell me,
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一個大學顧問在我
10:20
when I went to the college and said,
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上大學并說，
10:22
"I'm kind of interested in anatomy,"
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“我對解剖學有些感興趣，”時
10:23
they said, "Anatomy's a dead science."
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對我說，“解剖學已經新的發現的需要了。”
10:25
He couldn't have been more wrong.
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他不能更錯了。
10:28
I really believe that we still have a lot to learn
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我真心相信我們仍然有很多
10:31
about the normal structure and function of our bodies.
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關於普通結構以及我們身體的運作可以學到的東西。
10:34
Not just about its genetics and molecular biology,
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不僅僅是它的基因以及分子生物學，
10:37
but up here in the meat end of the scale.
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反之，在肌肉的等級。
10:40
We've got limits on our time.
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我們的時間有限。
10:42
We often focus on one disease,
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我們通常專注于一種疾病，
10:44
one model, one problem,
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一種模型，一個問題，
10:45
but my experience suggests
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但我的經驗告訴我
10:47
that we should take the time
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我們應該花更多時間在
10:48
to apply ideas broadly between systems
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不同的系統中廣義運用我們的想法
10:51
and just see where it takes us.
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來看有什麽新的結果。
10:53
After all, if ideas about invertebrate skeletons
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畢竟，如果關於無骨骨骼的想法
10:56
can give us insights
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可以給我們關於
10:58
about mammalian reproductive systems,
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哺乳動物生殖系統的領悟，
11:00
there could be lots of other wild and productive connections
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那便可能有更多的奇怪但有用的聯繫
11:04
lurking out there just waiting to be found.
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等著我們的發掘。
11:06
Thank you.
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謝謝。
11:08
(Applause)
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（掌聲）
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Diane Kelly - BiologistDiane Kelly studies vertebrate anatomy, in particular the connection between the design and the function of reproductive organs.
Why you should listen
Diane A. Kelly is a Senior Research Fellow at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Her research interests include the evolution of copulatory systems and sexual differentiation in the nervous system. She is best known for her original work on the anatomy and function of vertebrate penises, but has also written children’s books, created exhibits for science museums, helped exhume a mastodon, and designed and published a pair of quirky science card games. Kelly holds a Ph.D. in Zoology from Duke University and an A.B. in Biological Sciences from the University of Chicago.
She blogs at Science Made Cool -- where she wrote about what it was like to give this talk.
Listen to Diane's hilarious, thoughtful StoryCollider podcast, "Death on the Road" >>
Diane Kelly | Speaker | TED.com