TEDSalon 2006
Steven Johnson: How the "ghost map" helped end a killer disease
Stīvena Džonsona „Spoku kartes” ekskursija
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Rakstnieks Stīvens Džonsons ved mūs 10 minūšu ilgā ekskursijā pa „Spoku karti”, viņa grāmatu, kas ir par 1854. gada Londonas holēras uzliesmojumu un to, kāda tam bija ietekme uz zinātni, pilsētām un mūsdienu sabiedrību.
Steven Johnson - Writer
Steven Berlin Johnson examines the intersection of science, technology and personal experience. Full bio
Steven Berlin Johnson examines the intersection of science, technology and personal experience. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:25
If you haven't ordered yet, I generally find the rigatoni with the spicy tomato sauce
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Ja vēl neesat neko pasūtījuši, manuprāt, rigatoni ar pikanto tomātu mērci
00:32
goes best with diseases of the small intestine.
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vislabāk iet kopā ar tievās zarnas slimībām.
00:35
(Laughter)
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(Smiekli)
00:37
So, sorry -- it just feels like I should be doing stand-up up here because of the setting.
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Piedodiet, vienkārši ir tāda sajūta, ka iekārtojuma dēļ man šeit būtu jāuzstājas 'stand-up'.
00:41
No, what I want to do is take you back to 1854
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Nē, uz pāris turpmākajām minūtēm es vēlos
00:46
in London for the next few minutes, and tell the story --
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jūs aizvest atpakaļ uz 1854. gadu Londonā, un īsumā
00:50
in brief -- of this outbreak,
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pastāstīt par šo uzliesmojumu,
00:53
which in many ways, I think, helped create the world that we live in today,
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kurš daudzejādā ziņā, manuprāt, palīdzēja radīt tādu pasauli, kādā mēs dzīvojam šodien,
00:57
and particularly the kind of city that we live in today.
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un īpaši tāda veida pilsētās, kurās dzīvojam šobrīd.
00:59
This period in 1854, in the middle part of the 19th century,
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Šis laika posms 1854. gads, 19. gadsimta vidus daļā,
01:03
in London's history, is incredibly interesting for a number of reasons.
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Londonas vēsturē, ir neticami interesants vairāku iemeslu dēļ.
01:07
But I think the most important one is that
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Taču, manuprāt, vissvarīgākais ir tas, ka
01:10
London was this city of 2.5 million people,
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Londona bija pilsēta ar 2,5 miljoniem iedzīvotājiem
01:13
and it was the largest city on the face of the planet at that point.
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un tobrīd tā bija lielākā pilsēta uz pasaules.
01:18
But it was also the largest city that had ever been built.
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Taču tā arī bija lielākā jebkad uzbūvētā pilsēta.
01:20
And so the Victorians were trying to live through
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Un tā Viktoriāņi mēģināja dzīvot
01:23
and simultaneously invent a whole new scale of living:
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un vienlaicīgi izgudrot pilnīgi jaunu dzīvošanas mērogu:
01:27
this scale of living that we, you know, now call "metropolitan living."
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šis dzīvošanas mērogs, ko mēs, kā jau zināt, nu saucam par „lielpilsētas dzīvi.”
01:32
And it was in many ways, at this point in the mid-1850s, a complete disaster.
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Tas daudzējādi, tajā brīdi 1850-to vidū, bija pilnīga katastrofa.
01:38
They were basically a city living with a modern kind of industrial metropolis
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Tā pamatā bija pilsēta, kas dzīvoja ar moderna veida rūpniecības metropoli
01:42
with an Elizabethan public infrastructure.
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ar Elizabetes laikmeta publisko infrastruktūru.
01:45
So people, for instance, just to gross you out for a second,
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Tāpēc, piemēram, lai jūs nedaudz sašķebinātu, cilvēkiem
01:50
had cesspools of human waste in their basement. Like, a foot to two feet deep.
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viņu pagrabā bija atkritumu bedre. Kādu vienu līdz divas pēdas dziļa.
01:56
And they would just kind of throw the buckets down there
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Viņi tur iekšā gāza spaini pēc spaiņi
01:59
and hope that it would somehow go away,
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un cerēja, ka tas kaut kādā veidā pazudīs,
02:01
and of course it never really would go away.
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un protams, tas nekur nepazuda.
02:04
And all of this stuff, basically, had accumulated to the point
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Viss šis draņķis, būtībā bija uzkrājies tik tālu,
02:07
where the city was incredibly offensive to just walk around in.
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ka pilsēta bija neticami pretīga, lai tikai staigātu apkārt pa to.
02:11
It was an amazingly smelly city. Not just because of the cesspools,
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Tā bija apbrīnojami smirdoša pilsēta. Ne tikai atkritumu bedru dēļ,
02:15
but also the sheer number of livestock in the city would shock people.
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cilvēkus satriektu arī lielais mājlopu daudzums pilsētā.
02:18
Not just the horses, but people had cows in their attics that they would use for milk,
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Ne tikai zirgus, cilvēki bēniņos turēja govis, kuras viņi izmantoja piena ieguvei,
02:22
that they would hoist up there and keep them in the attic
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kuras viņi varēja uzvilkt augšā un glabāt bēniņos
02:25
until literally their milk ran out and they died,
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līdz brīdim, kad to piens burtiski izbeidzās un tās nomira,
02:27
and then they would drag them off to the bone boilers down the street.
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un pēc tam viņi tās vilka pa ielu uz kaulu katliem.
02:33
So, you would just walk around London at this point
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Jūs šajā laikā varētu vienkārši staigāt pa Londonu
02:36
and just be overwhelmed with this stench.
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un būt vienkārši satriekti par smārdu.
02:39
And what ended up happening is that an entire emerging public health system
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Viss beidzās ar to, ka visa topošā sabiedrības veselības sistēma
02:44
became convinced that it was the smell that was killing everybody,
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bija pārliecināta, ka smaka bija tā, kas visus nogalināja,
02:48
that was creating these diseases
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kas radīja šīs slimības,
02:50
that would wipe through the city every three or four years.
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kas varētu iztraukties cauri pilsētai katrus trīs vai četrus gadus.
02:53
And cholera was really the great killer of this period.
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Holēra šajā laika posmā tiešām bija liela slepkava.
02:55
It arrived in London in 1832, and every four or five years
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Tā nokļuva Londonā 1832. gadā, un ik pēc četriem vai pieciem gadiem
03:00
another epidemic would take 10,000, 20,000 people in London
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kārtējā epidēmija Londonā un visā Lielbritānijā paņemtu
03:04
and throughout the U.K.
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10 000, 20 000 cilvēku dzīvību.
03:06
And so the authorities became convinced that this smell was this problem.
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Un tā varas iestādes bija pārliecinātas, ka problēma bija šī smaka.
03:10
We had to get rid of the smell.
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Mums vajadzēja atbrīvoties no smakas
03:12
And so, in fact, they concocted a couple of early, you know,
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Tā viņi faktiski izdomāja vairākus no agrīnajiem
03:15
founding public-health interventions in the system of the city,
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topošās sabiedrības veselības aizsardzības iejaukšanās veidiem pilsētas sistēmā,
03:19
one of which was called the "Nuisances Act,"
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no kurām viena tika nosaukta par „Traucējumu likumu”,
03:21
which they got everybody as far as they could
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piespiežot visus, iespēju robežās,
03:23
to empty out their cesspools and just pour all that waste into the river.
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iztukšot atkritumu bedres un vienkārši iegāzt visus atkritumus upē.
03:28
Because if we get it out of the streets, it'll smell much better,
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Jo, ja mēs to dabūjam prom no ielas, smaržos daudz labāk,
03:32
and -- oh right, we drink from the river.
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un, ā, pareizi, mēs dzeram no upes.
03:36
So what ended up happening, actually,
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Tādēļ beigu beigās holēras
03:38
is they ended up increasing the outbreaks of cholera
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uzliesmojumi īstenībā pat palielinājās
03:40
because, as we now know, cholera is actually in the water.
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jo, kā mēs tagad zinām, holēra patiesībā ir ūdenī.
03:44
It's a waterborne disease, not something that's in the air.
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Tā ir ūdens izraisīta slimība, nevis kaut kas ir kaut kur gaisā.
03:47
It's not something you smell or inhale; it's something you ingest.
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Tas nav kaut kas, ko var saost vai ieelpot; tas ir kaut kas, ko jūs norijat.
03:50
And so one of the founding moments of public health in the 19th century
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Tā nu viens no 19. gadsimta sabiedrības veselības sistēmas pirmajiem mirkļiem
03:54
effectively poisoned the water supply of London much more effectively
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kļuva efektīva Londonas ūdens apgādes saindēšana, daudz efektīvāk,
03:58
than any modern day bioterrorist could have ever dreamed of doing.
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nekā mūsdienu bioteroristi varētu kādreiz pat sapņot.
04:01
So this was the state of London in 1854,
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Tātad tāds bija stāvoklis Londonā 1854. gadā,
04:05
and in the middle of all this carnage and offensive conditions,
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un šīs asinspirts un aizvainojošu nosacījumi vidū,
04:11
and in the midst of all this scientific confusion
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un šīs zinātniskās neskaidrības vidū
04:14
about what was actually killing people,
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par to, kas īstenībā nogalināja cilvēkus,
04:17
it was a very talented classic 19th century multi-disciplinarian named John Snow,
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bija ļoti talantīgs klasiskā 19. gadsimta daudzdisciplinārietis Džons Snovs,
04:23
who was a local doctor in Soho in London,
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kurš bija vietējais ārsts Soho, Londonā,
04:26
who had been arguing for about four or five years
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kurš aptuveni četrus vai piecus gadus
04:28
that cholera was, in fact, a waterborne disease,
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bija strīdējies par to, ka holēra patiesībā bija ūdens izraisīta slimība
04:31
and had basically convinced nobody of this.
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un būtībā nebija nevienu par to pārliecinājis.
04:34
The public health authorities had largely ignored what he had to say.
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Sabiedrības veselības aizsardzības iestāžu ierēdņi lielā mērā ignorēja to, kas viņam bija sakāms.
04:38
And he'd made the case in a number of papers and done a number of studies,
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Viņš savu taisnību bija pierādījis ar neskaitāmiem darbiem un izdarījis virkni pētījumu,
04:42
but nothing had really stuck.
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taču nekas neaizķērās.
04:44
And part of -- what's so interesting about this story to me
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Daļa no tā, kas man šajā stāstā šķiet interesanta,
04:46
is that in some ways, it's a great case study in how cultural change happens,
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ir tas, ka dažos veidos, tas ir lielisks gadījumu pētījums par to, kā noris kulturālas pārmaiņas,
04:51
how a good idea eventually comes to win out over much worse ideas.
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kā labas idejas beigās uzvar daudz sliktākas idejas.
04:56
And Snow labored for a long time with this great insight that everybody ignored.
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Snovs ilgu laiku strādāja pie šīs lielās atziņas, ko visi ignorēja.
05:00
And then on one day, August 28th of 1854,
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Un tad vienā dienā 1854. gada 28. augustā,
05:05
a young child, a five-month-old girl whose first name we don't know,
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jauns bērns, piecu mēnešu veca meitene, kuras vārdu mēs nezinām,
05:09
we know her only as Baby Lewis, somehow contracted cholera,
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mēs viņu zinām tikai kā Mazo Luisu, kaut kā saķēra holēru,
05:13
came down with cholera at 40 Broad Street.
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inficējās ar holēru Broudstrītā 40.
05:16
You can't really see it in this map, but this is the map
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Jūs nevarat to redzēt šajā kartē, taču šī karte
05:19
that becomes the central focus in the second half of my book.
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kļūst par manas grāmatas otrās puses centrālo tēmu.
05:24
It's in the middle of Soho, in this working class neighborhood,
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Tas ir Soho vidū, strādnieku šķiras rajons,
05:26
this little girl becomes sick and it turns out that the cesspool,
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šī mazā meitene saslimst un izrādās, ka atkritumu bedre,
05:30
that they still continue to have, despite the Nuisances Act,
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kas viņiem vēl joprojām bija, neskatoties uz „Traucējumu likumu”
05:33
bordered on an extremely popular water pump,
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robežojās ar ļoti populāru ūdens sūkni,
05:37
local watering hole that was well known for the best water in all of Soho,
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vietējo ūdens tecināšanas bedre, kas bija labi pazīstama visā Soho kā labākā ūdens avots,
05:41
that all the residents from Soho and the surrounding neighborhoods would go to.
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tā kā visi Soho un apkārtējo rajonu iedzīvotāji devās turp.
05:45
And so this little girl inadvertently ended up
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Un tā šī meitenīte netīši
05:48
contaminating the water in this popular pump,
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piesārņoja ūdeni šajā populārājā sūknī,
05:50
and one of the most terrifying outbreaks in the history of England
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un divas vai trīs dienas vēlāk izcēlās viens no briesmīgākajiem
05:56
erupted about two or three days later.
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uzliesmojumiem Anglijas vēsturē.
05:58
Literally, 10 percent of the neighborhood died in seven days,
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Septiņu dienu laikā izmira burtiski 10 procenti no rajonu iedzīvotājiem.
06:02
and much more would have died if people hadn't fled
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un noteikti apmirtu daudz vairāk, ja vien cilvēki
06:04
after the initial outbreak kicked in.
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nebūtu bēguši pēc sākotnējā uzliesmojuma sākšanās.
06:07
So it was this incredibly terrifying event.
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Tātad tas bija neticami baiss notikums.
06:09
You had these scenes of entire families dying
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Bija redzamas veselu ģimeņu miršanas ainas
06:12
over the course of 48 hours of cholera,
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48 stundu laikā no holēras
06:14
alone in their one-room apartments, in their little flats.
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vienatnē viņu vienistabas apartamentos, viņu mazajos dzīvokļos.
06:19
Just an extraordinary, terrifying scene.
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Tiešām neparasta, šausminoša aina.
06:22
Snow lived near there, heard about the outbreak,
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Snovs dzīvoja netālu, padzirdējis par uzliesmojumu,
06:26
and in this amazing act of courage went directly into the belly of the beast
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izrādīja apbrīnojamo drosmi, dodoties tieši nezvēram rīklē,
06:29
because he thought an outbreak that concentrated
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jo viņš saprata, ka tik koncentrēts uzliesmojums
06:32
could actually potentially end up convincing people that,
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varētu beidzot galu galā pārliecināt cilvēkus, ka
06:36
in fact, the real menace of cholera was in the water supply and not in the air.
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patiesībā, reālos holēras draudus rada ūdens apgāde, nevis gaiss.
06:42
He suspected an outbreak that concentrated
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Viņam bija aizdomas, ka tik koncentrēts uzliesmojums
06:44
would probably involve a single point source.
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droši vien varētu būt saistīts ar vienu avotu.
06:48
One single thing that everybody was going to
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Viena lieta, par ko visiem bija aizdomas,
06:50
because it didn't have the traditional slower path
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tāpēc, ka tai nebija tradicionālā lēnā ceļa
06:53
of infections that you might expect.
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infekcijām, ko jūs varētu sagaidīt.
06:56
And so he went right in there and started interviewing people.
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Un tā viņš devās tieši tur un sāka apzināt cilvēkus.
06:59
He eventually enlisted the help of this amazing other figure,
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Viņš beidzot saņēma palīdzību no cita apbrīnojama cilvēka,
07:03
who's kind of the other protagonist of the book --
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kurš grāmatā ir tāds kā otrais galvenais varonis,
07:05
this guy, Henry Whitehead, who was a local minister,
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šī puiša, Henrija Vaitheda, kurš bija vietējās ministrs,
07:08
who was not at all a man of science, but was incredibly socially connected;
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kurš ne pavisam nebija zinātnieks, taču bija ar plašiem sakariem sabiedrībā;
07:11
he knew everybody in the neighborhood.
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viņš pazina visus šajā apkaimē.
07:13
And he managed to track down, Whitehead did,
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Viņam, Vaithedam, izdevās atrast
07:15
many of the cases of people who had drunk water from the pump,
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daudzus cilvēkus, kuri bija dzērušu ūdeni no sūkņa,
07:18
or who hadn't drunk water from the pump.
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vai kuri nebija dzēruši ūdeni no sūkņa.
07:20
And eventually Snow made a map of the outbreak.
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Un galu galā Snovs izveidoja uzliesmojuma karti.
07:25
He found increasingly that people who drank from the pump were getting sick.
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Viņš atrada arvien vairāk cilvēku, kuri bija dzēruši no sūkņa un kļuva slimi.
07:28
People who hadn't drunk from the pump were not getting sick.
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Cilvēki, kuri nebija dzēruši no sūkņa, nebija slimi.
07:31
And he thought about representing that
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Viņš domāja to parādīt, kā
07:33
as a kind of a table of statistics of people living in different neighborhoods,
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sava veida galda statistiku par cilvēkiem, kas dzīvo dažādos rajonos,
07:36
people who hadn't, you know, percentages of people who hadn't,
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cilvēki, kuri nebija, ziniet, cilvēku procenti, kuri nebija,
07:38
but eventually he hit upon the idea
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taču galu galā viņam radās ideja,
07:40
that what he needed was something that you could see.
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ka viņam bija nepieciešams kaut kas, ko jūs varētu redzēt.
07:42
Something that would take in a sense a higher-level view
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Kaut ko, kas uz visu varētu paskatīties vairāk no augšas,
07:44
of all this activity that had been happening in the neighborhood.
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uz visām šīm norisēm, kas bija notikušas rajonos.
07:47
And so he created this map,
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Un tā nu viņš radīja šo karti,
07:50
which basically ended up representing all the deaths in the neighborhoods
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kas būtībā parādīja visus nāves gadījumus rajonos
07:54
as black bars at each address.
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kā melnu līniju pie katras adreses.
07:57
And you can see in this map, the pump right at the center of it
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Kā jau jūs šajā kartē varat redzēt, sūknis atrodas tās centrā
08:00
and you can see that one of the residences down the way
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un jūs varat redzēt, ka vienā no zemāk esošajām dzīvesvietām
08:02
had about 15 people dead.
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bija miruši apmēram 15 cilvēki.
08:04
And the map is actually a little bit bigger.
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Karte ir īstenībā ir nedaudz lielāka.
08:06
As you get further and further away from the pump,
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Jums dodoties tālāk un tālāk prom no sūkņa,
08:08
the deaths begin to grow less and less frequent.
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mirušie kļūst arvien mazāk
08:11
And so you can see this something poisonous
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Pat tik vien kā uzmetot aci, jūs redzat
08:14
emanating out of this pump that you could see in a glance.
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no šī sūkņa plūstam kaut ko indīgu.
08:18
And so, with the help of this map,
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Tātad ar šīs kartes
08:20
and with the help of more evangelizing
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un ar priviliģētāko palīdzību,
08:22
that he did over the next few years
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nākamo dažu gadu laikā viņš
08:24
and that Whitehead did, eventually, actually,
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un Vaitheds, galu galā
08:26
the authorities slowly started to come around.
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ierēdņiem lika lēnām saprast lietas būtību.
08:28
It took much longer than sometimes we like to think in this story,
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Tas prasīja daudz lielāku laiku, nekā mums šajā stāstā būtu gribējies,
08:31
but by 1866, when the next big cholera outbreak came to London,
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taču līdz 1866. gadam, kad Londonā sākās nākamais lielais holēras uzliesmojums,
08:36
the authorities had been convinced -- in part because of this story,
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ierēdņi bija pārliecināti, daļēji šī stāsta dēļ,
08:40
in part because of this map -- that in fact the water was the problem.
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daļēji šīs kartes dēļ, ka patiesībā problēma bija ūdens.
08:44
And they had already started building the sewers in London,
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Viņi jau bija sākuši būvēt Londonas kanalizāciju,
08:46
and they immediately went to this outbreak
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viņi uzreiz devās uz uzliesmojuma vietu
08:48
and they told everybody to start boiling their water.
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un teica, lai visi liek ūdeni vārīties.
08:50
And that was the last time that London has seen a cholera outbreak since.
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Un tā bija pēdējā reize, kad Londonā manīja holēras uzliesmojumu.
08:55
So, part of this story, I think -- well, it's a terrifying story,
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Jā, daļēji šis stāsts, manuprāt, nu, tas ir biedējošs stāsts
08:58
it's a very dark story and it's a story
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tas ir ļoti tumšs stāsts, un tas ir stāsts,
09:00
that continues on in many of the developing cities of the world.
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kas joprojām turpinās daudzās jaunattīstības pilsētās pasaulē.
09:04
It's also a story really that is fundamentally optimistic,
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Tas arī ir dziļi optimistisks stāsts,
09:07
which is to say that it's possible to solve these problems
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kura mācība ir, ka šādas problēmas ir iespējams atrisināt,
09:10
if we listen to reason, if we listen to the kind of wisdom of these kinds of maps,
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ja mēs ņemam vērā teikto, ja mēs ņemam vērā šādas veida karšu gudrību,
09:14
if we listen to people like Snow and Whitehead,
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ja mēs ņemam vērā tādus cilvēkus kā, piemēram, Snovs un Vaitheds,
09:16
if we listen to the locals who understand
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ja mēs klausāmies vietējos iedzīvotājos, kas saprot,
09:18
what's going on in these kinds of situations.
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kas notiek šādos gadījumos.
09:21
And what it ended up doing is making the idea
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Tas beidzās ar idejas rašanos par
09:24
of large-scale metropolitan living a sustainable one.
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ilgtspējīgu dzīvi liela mēroga metropolē.
09:28
When people were looking at 10 percent of their neighborhoods dying
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Cilvēkiem noraugoties kā septiņu dienu laikā izmirst 10 procenti
09:31
in the space of seven days,
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no visiem rajonu iedzīvotājiem,
09:33
there was a widespread consensus that this couldn't go on,
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bija liela vienprātība par to, ka tas nevar turpināties,
09:36
that people weren't meant to live in cities of 2.5 million people.
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ka cilvēki nebija radīti, lai dzīvotu pilsētās ar 2,5 miljoniem iedzīvotāju.
09:40
But because of what Snow did, because of this map,
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Taču Snova izdarītā dēļ, šīs kartes dēļ,
09:42
because of the whole series of reforms
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veselās virknes reformu dēļ,
09:44
that happened in the wake of this map,
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kas notika, rodoties šai kartei,
09:46
we now take for granted that cities have 10 million people,
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nu mēs pilsētas ar 10 miljoni cilvēku uzskatām par pašsaprotamām,
09:50
cities like this one are in fact sustainable things.
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pilsētas kā šī faktiski ir ilgtspējīgas.
09:52
We don't worry that New York City is going to collapse in on itself
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Mēs neuztraucamies, ka Ņujorkas pilsēta gatavojas sabrukt pati no sevis,
09:55
quite the way that, you know, Rome did,
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ziniet, gluži kā to ņēma un izdarīja Roma,
09:57
and be 10 percent of its size in 100 years or 200 years.
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un būtu 10 procenti no tās lieluma pēc 100 vai 200 gadiem.
10:00
And so that in a way is the ultimate legacy of this map.
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Tāds arī savā veidā ir šīs kartes galvenais mantojums.
10:03
It's a map of deaths that ended up creating a whole new way of life,
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Tā ir karte par nāves gadījumiem, kas beigās radīja pilnīgi jaunu dzīves veidu,
10:08
the life that we're enjoying here today. Thank you very much.
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dzīvi, kādu mēs šeit baudām šodien. Liels paldies.
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Steven Johnson - WriterSteven Berlin Johnson examines the intersection of science, technology and personal experience.
Why you should listen
Steven Johnson is a leading light of today's interdisciplinary and collaborative approach to innovation. His writings have influenced everything from cutting-edge ideas in urban planning to the battle against 21st-century terrorism. Johnson was chosen by Prospect magazine as one of the top ten brains of the digital future, and The Wall Street Journal calls him "one of the most persuasive advocates for the role of collaboration in innovation."
Johnson's work on the history of innovation inspired the Emmy-nominated six-part series on PBS, "How We Got To Now with Steven Johnson," which aired in the fall of 2014. The book version of How We Got To Now was a finalist for the PEN/E.O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award. His new book, Wonderland: How Play Made the Modern World, revolves around the creative power of play and delight: ideas and innovations that set into motion many momentous changes in science, technology, politics and society.
Johnson is also the author of the bestselling Where Good Ideas Come From: The Natural History of Innovation, one of his many books celebrating progress and innovation. Others include The Invention of Air and The Ghost Map. Everything Bad Is Good For You, one of the most discussed books of 2005, argued that the increasing complexity of modern media is training us to think in more complex ways. Emergence and Future Perfect explore the power of bottom-up intelligence in both nature and contemporary society.
An innovator himself, Johnson has co-created three influential sites: the pioneering online magazine FEED, the Webby-Award-winning community site, Plastic.com, and the hyperlocal media site outside.in, which was acquired by AOL in 2011.
Johnson is a regular contributor to WIRED magazine, as well as the New York Times, The Wall Street Journal and many other periodicals. He has appeared on many high-profile television programs, including "The Charlie Rose Show," "The Daily Show with Jon Stewart" and "The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer."
Steven Johnson | Speaker | TED.com