TEDGlobal 2011
Mark Pagel: How language transformed humanity
Mark Pagel: Kako je jezik spremenil človeštvo
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Biolog Mark Pagel pojasni zanimivo teorijo o tem, zakaj smo ljudje razvili kompleksni sistem jezika. Trdi, da je jezik del "socialne tehnologije", ki je zgodnjim človeškim plemenom dala dostop do pomembnega novega orodja: sodelovanja.
Mark Pagel - Evolutionary biologist
Using biological evolution as a template, Mark Pagel wonders how languages evolve. Full bio
Using biological evolution as a template, Mark Pagel wonders how languages evolve. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:15
Each of you possesses
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Vsak od vas ima
00:17
the most powerful, dangerous and subversive trait
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najmočnejšo, najnevarnejšo in najbolj subverzivno lastnost,
00:20
that natural selection has ever devised.
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ki jo je naravna selekcija kdajkoli razvila.
00:23
It's a piece of neural audio technology
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Gre za del nevralne avdio tehnologije
00:26
for rewiring other people's minds.
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za vplivanje na misli drugih ljudi.
00:28
I'm talking about your language, of course,
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Govorim seveda o jeziku,
00:31
because it allows you to implant a thought from your mind
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kajti ta omogoča, da misel iz svojih možganov posadite
00:34
directly into someone else's mind,
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neposredno v možgane nekoga drugega;
00:37
and they can attempt to do the same to you,
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ta nekdo drug lahko enako naredi vam,
00:39
without either of you having to perform surgery.
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ne da bi kdorkoli od vaju za to potreboval operacijo.
00:42
Instead, when you speak,
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Namesto tega, ko govorite,
00:44
you're actually using a form of telemetry
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pravzaprav uporabljate obliko telemetrije,
00:46
not so different
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ki ni zelo drugačna
00:48
from the remote control device for your television.
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od daljinskega upravljalca vaše televizije.
00:50
It's just that, whereas that device
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Razlika je le v tem, da medtem ko se daljinec
00:52
relies on pulses of infrared light,
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zanaša na impulze infrardeče luči,
00:54
your language relies on pulses,
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se jezik zanaša na impulze,
00:57
discrete pulses, of sound.
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diskretne impulze zvoka.
00:59
And just as you use the remote control device
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In prav tako kot lahko z daljincem
01:02
to alter the internal settings of your television
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spremenite notranje nastavitve svoje televizije,
01:04
to suit your mood,
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da odgovarjajo vašemu počutju,
01:06
you use your language
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uporabljate jezik,
01:08
to alter the settings inside someone else's brain
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da z njim spreminjate nastavitve v možganih nekoga drugega,
01:10
to suit your interests.
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da so v skladu z vašimi interesi.
01:12
Languages are genes talking,
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Jeziki so govoreči geni,
01:14
getting things that they want.
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ki dosežejo tisto, kar hočejo.
01:16
And just imagine the sense of wonder in a baby
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Zamislite si, kako se dojenček čudi,
01:19
when it first discovers that, merely by uttering a sound,
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ko odkrije, da lahko z uporabo določenega zvoka
01:22
it can get objects to move across a room
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doseže, da se predmeti v sobi
01:24
as if by magic,
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kot po čarovniji premaknejo,
01:26
and maybe even into its mouth.
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morda celo pristanejo v njegovih ustih.
01:29
Now language's subversive power
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Subverzivno moč jezika
01:31
has been recognized throughout the ages
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so skozi stoletja priznavali
01:33
in censorship, in books you can't read,
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s cenzuro: knjigami, ki jih ne smete brati,
01:35
phrases you can't use
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frazami, ki jih ne smete uporabljati,
01:37
and words you can't say.
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in besedami, ki jih ne smete izreči.
01:39
In fact, the Tower of Babel story in the Bible
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Pravzaprav je biblijska zgodba o babilonskem stolpu
01:42
is a fable and warning
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basen in opozorilo
01:44
about the power of language.
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o moči jezika.
01:46
According to that story, early humans developed the conceit
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Zgodba pravi, da so si prvi ljudje zamislili,
01:49
that, by using their language to work together,
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da bi ob uporabi jezika za sodelovanje
01:51
they could build a tower
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lahko zgradili stolp,
01:53
that would take them all the way to heaven.
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ki bi vodil vse do nebes.
01:55
Now God, angered at this attempt to usurp his power,
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Boga je ta poskus prevzema njegove moči razjezil
01:58
destroyed the tower,
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in je unčil stolp.
02:01
and then to ensure
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Da bi preprečil,
02:03
that it would never be rebuilt,
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da bi ga še kdaj zgradili,
02:05
he scattered the people by giving them different languages --
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je ljudi razpršil tako, da jim je dal različne jezike --
02:08
confused them by giving them different languages.
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zmedel jih je z različnimi jeziki.
02:11
And this leads to the wonderful irony
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V tem je čudovita ironija,
02:13
that our languages exist to prevent us from communicating.
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da jeziki obstajajo zato, da preprečujejo komunikacijo med nami.
02:16
Even today,
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Celo dandanes
02:18
we know that there are words we cannot use,
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vemo, da nekaterih besed ne smemo izreči,
02:20
phrases we cannot say,
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ne uporabljati določenih fraz,
02:22
because if we do so,
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kajti če bi jih,
02:24
we might be accosted, jailed,
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bi nas lahko napadli, vrgli v ječo
02:27
or even killed.
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ali celo umorili.
02:29
And all of this from a puff of air
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In vse to zaradi sapice,
02:31
emanating from our mouths.
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ki izhaja iz naših ust.
02:33
Now all this fuss about a single one of our traits
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Vse to razburjenje zaradi ene same človeške lastnosti
02:36
tells us there's something worth explaining.
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nam pove, da si tu nekaj zasluži razlago.
02:38
And that is how and why
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In to je, kako in zakaj
02:40
did this remarkable trait evolve,
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se je ta izjemna lastnost razvila
02:42
and why did it evolve
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ter zakaj se je razvila
02:44
only in our species?
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samo pri naši vrsti?
02:46
Now it's a little bit of a surprise
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Mogoče je malo presenetljivo,
02:48
that to get an answer to that question,
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da bomo odgovor na to vprašanje dobili s pogledom na
02:50
we have to go to tool use
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uporabo orodij
02:52
in the chimpanzees.
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pri šimpanzih.
02:54
Now these chimpanzees are using tools,
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Tile šimpanzi uporabljajo orodja
02:56
and we take that as a sign of their intelligence.
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in to jemljemo kot znak njihove inteligence.
02:59
But if they really were intelligent,
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Ampak če bi bili zares inteligentni,
03:01
why would they use a stick to extract termites from the ground
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zakaj bi termite bezali iz zemlje s palico,
03:04
rather than a shovel?
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namesto z lopato?
03:06
And if they really were intelligent,
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In če bi bili res inteligentni,
03:09
why would they crack open nuts with a rock?
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zakaj bi trli orehe s kamnom?
03:11
Why wouldn't they just go to a shop and buy a bag of nuts
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Zakaj ne bi enostavno šli v trgovino in kupili vrečko orehov,
03:14
that somebody else had already cracked open for them?
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ki jih je že strl nekdo drug?
03:17
Why not? I mean, that's what we do.
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Zakaj ne? Saj mi to počnemo.
03:19
Now the reason the chimpanzees don't do that
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Razlog, da šimpanzi ne delujejo tako,
03:21
is that they lack what psychologists and anthropologists call
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je v tem, da nimajo tistega, čemur psihologi in antropologi pravijo
03:24
social learning.
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socialno učenje.
03:26
They seem to lack the ability
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Kaže, da nimajo sposobnosti
03:28
to learn from others
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učiti se od drugih
03:30
by copying or imitating
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s kopiranjem ali imitiranjem
03:32
or simply watching.
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ali enostavno z opazovanjem.
03:34
As a result,
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Posledica tega je,
03:36
they can't improve on others' ideas
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da ne morejo izboljšati idej drugih
03:38
or learn from others' mistakes --
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ali se učiti na napakah drugih --
03:40
benefit from others' wisdom.
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imeti koristi od modrosti drugih.
03:42
And so they just do the same thing
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Tako vedno znova in znova
03:44
over and over and over again.
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ponavljajo iste stvari.
03:46
In fact, we could go away for a million years and come back
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Pravzaprav bi lahko šli milijon let nazaj in se spet vrnili
03:50
and these chimpanzees would be doing the same thing
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pa bi ti šimpanzi še vedno počeli isto stvar
03:53
with the same sticks for the termites
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z isto palico za termite
03:55
and the same rocks to crack open the nuts.
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in istimi kamni za trenje orehov.
03:58
Now this may sound arrogant, or even full of hubris.
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Morda to zveni arogantno ali celo objestno.
04:01
How do we know this?
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Kako to vemo?
04:03
Because this is exactly what our ancestors, the Homo erectus, did.
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Ker je to točno tisto, kar je počel naš prednik homo erectus.
04:06
These upright apes
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Te pokončne opice
04:08
evolved on the African savanna
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so se razvile v afriški savani
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about two million years ago,
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pred približno dvema milijonoma let
04:12
and they made these splendid hand axes
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in so izdelovale tele odlične ročne sekire,
04:14
that fit wonderfully into your hands.
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ki se lepo prilegajo v roko.
04:16
But if we look at the fossil record,
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A če si ogledamo fosilni zapis,
04:18
we see that they made the same hand axe
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vidimo, da so enake sekire delali
04:21
over and over and over again
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vedno znova in znova
04:23
for one million years.
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celih milijon let.
04:25
You can follow it through the fossil record.
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Temu lahko sledite skozi fosilni zapis.
04:27
Now if we make some guesses about how long Homo erectus lived,
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Lahko ugibamo, kako dolgo je homo erectus živel,
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what their generation time was,
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kakšen je bil njegov generacijski čas,
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that's about 40,000 generations
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to je okoli 40.000 generacij
04:34
of parents to offspring, and other individuals watching,
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od staršev do naraščaja in drugih posameznikov,
04:37
in which that hand axe didn't change.
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v katerem se tista ročna sekira ni spremenila.
04:39
It's not even clear
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Jasno ni niti,
04:41
that our very close genetic relatives, the Neanderthals,
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ali so naši bližnji genetski sorodniki, neandertalci,
04:43
had social learning.
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poznali socialno učenje.
04:45
Sure enough, their tools were more complicated
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Seveda so bila njihova orodja bolj zapletena
04:48
than those of Homo erectus,
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kot tista od homo erectusa,
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but they too showed very little change
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ampak tudi ta so se le malo spremenila, in to
04:52
over the 300,000 years or so
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v približno 300.000 letih,
04:55
that those species, the Neanderthals,
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kolikor je ta vrsta, neandertalec,
04:57
lived in Eurasia.
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živela v Evraziji.
04:59
Okay, so what this tells us
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V redu, to nam torej pove,
05:01
is that, contrary to the old adage,
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da stari rek
05:04
"monkey see, monkey do,"
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"Kar se Janezek nauči, to Janezek zna",
05:07
the surprise really is
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zares velja samo za človeka
05:09
that all of the other animals
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in da druge živali
05:11
really cannot do that -- at least not very much.
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tega v resnici ne zmorejo -- vsaj ne v veliki meri.
05:14
And even this picture
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Celo tale fotografija
05:16
has the suspicious taint of being rigged about it --
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je sumljiva -- smrdi po ponaredku --
05:19
something from a Barnum & Bailey circus.
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deluje precej cirkusantsko.
05:21
But by comparison,
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V primerjavi z živalmi
05:23
we can learn.
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pa se ljudje lahko učimo.
05:25
We can learn by watching other people
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Lahko se naučimo z opazovanjem drugih
05:28
and copying or imitating
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in kopiranjem ali imitiranjem tega,
05:30
what they can do.
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kar počnejo.
05:32
We can then choose, from among a range of options,
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Potem lahko med kopico možnosti
05:35
the best one.
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izberemo najboljšo.
05:37
We can benefit from others' ideas.
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Od idej drugih imamo lahko koristi.
05:39
We can build on their wisdom.
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Lahko gradimo na njihovi modrosti.
05:41
And as a result, our ideas do accumulate,
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Rezultat tega je, da se ideje kopičijo
05:44
and our technology progresses.
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in tehnologija napreduje.
05:48
And this cumulative cultural adaptation,
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In ta kumulativna kulturna adaptacija,
05:53
as anthropologists call
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kakor antropologi poimenujejo
05:55
this accumulation of ideas,
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tovrstno kopičenje idej,
05:57
is responsible for everything around you
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je odgovorna za vse okoli vas
05:59
in your bustling and teeming everyday lives.
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v vašem živahnem vsakdanu.
06:01
I mean the world has changed out of all proportion
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Hočem reči, da se je svet spremenil preko vsake mere
06:03
to what we would recognize
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v primerjavi s tem, kar so poznali
06:05
even 1,000 or 2,000 years ago.
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tisoč ali dva tisoč let nazaj.
06:08
And all of this because of cumulative cultural adaptation.
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Vse to je zaradi kumulativne kulturne adaptacije.
06:11
The chairs you're sitting in, the lights in this auditorium,
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Stoli, na katerih sedite, luči v tej dvorani,
06:13
my microphone, the iPads and iPods that you carry around with you --
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moj mikrofon, iPadi in iPodi, ki jih nosite s seboj,
06:16
all are a result
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vse to je rezultat
06:18
of cumulative cultural adaptation.
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kumulativne kulturne adaptacije.
06:20
Now to many commentators,
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Za marsikaterega komentatorja
06:24
cumulative cultural adaptation, or social learning,
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je kumulativna kulturna adaptacija, ali socialno učenje
06:27
is job done, end of story.
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konec zgodbe.
06:30
Our species can make stuff,
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Naša vrsta lahko izdeluje stvari,
06:33
therefore we prospered in a way that no other species has.
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zato smo napredovali na način, na kakršnega ni nobena druga vrsta.
06:36
In fact, we can even make the "stuff of life" --
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Pravzaprav lahko naredimo celo "življenjske stvari" --
06:39
as I just said, all the stuff around us.
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kot sem rekel, stvari okoli nas.
06:41
But in fact, it turns out
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A pravzaprav se izkaže,
06:43
that some time around 200,000 years ago,
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da je bil okoli 200.000 let nazaj,
06:46
when our species first arose
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ko se je naša vrsta pojavila
06:48
and acquired social learning,
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in spoznala socialno učenje,
06:50
that this was really the beginning of our story,
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to pravzaprav začetek naše zgodbe,
06:52
not the end of our story.
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ne pa njen konec.
06:54
Because our acquisition of social learning
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Zaradi socialnega učenja
06:57
would create a social and evolutionary dilemma,
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smo ustvarili socialno in evolucijsko dilemo,
07:00
the resolution of which, it's fair to say,
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razrešitev katere bi, če smo pošteni,
07:03
would determine not only the future course of our psychology,
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določila ne samo prihodnji tok naše psihologije,
07:07
but the future course of the entire world.
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ampak tudi prihodnji tok celotnega sveta.
07:09
And most importantly for this,
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Najpomembneje pa je,
07:12
it'll tell us why we have language.
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da nam razloži, zakaj imamo jezik.
07:15
And the reason that dilemma arose
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Razlog za to dilemo pa je v tem,
07:17
is, it turns out, that social learning is visual theft.
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da se je izkazalo, da gre pri socialnem učenju za krajo videnega.
07:20
If I can learn by watching you,
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Če se lahko učim tako, da vas gledam,
07:23
I can steal your best ideas,
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lahko kradem vaše najboljše ideje
07:25
and I can benefit from your efforts,
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in imam koristi od vaših naporov,
07:28
without having to put in the time and energy that you did
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ne da bi moral vlagati čas in energijo, ki ste ju vložili vi,
07:30
into developing them.
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da ste ideje razvili.
07:32
If I can watch which lure you use to catch a fish,
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Če vas lahko gledam, ko lovite ribe
07:35
or I can watch how you flake your hand axe
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ali kako naostrite svojo sekiro,
07:37
to make it better,
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da bi bolje delovala,
07:39
or if I follow you secretly to your mushroom patch,
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ali če vam skrivaj sledim do vaše grede gob,
07:42
I can benefit from your knowledge and wisdom and skills,
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imam lahko korist od vašega znanja, modrosti in sposobnosti
07:45
and maybe even catch that fish
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in mogoče bom tisto ribo ujel
07:47
before you do.
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celo pred vami.
07:49
Social learning really is visual theft.
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Socialno učenje je res kraja videnega.
07:52
And in any species that acquired it,
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In pri katerikoli vrsti, ki ga pozna,
07:54
it would behoove you
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je pametno
07:56
to hide your best ideas,
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skriti najboljše zamisli,
07:58
lest somebody steal them from you.
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drugače jih bo nekdo ukradel.
08:02
And so some time around 200,000 years ago,
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Nekoč pred približno 200.000 leti
08:05
our species confronted this crisis.
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se je naša vrsta soočila s to krizo.
08:08
And we really had only two options
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In dejansko imamo samo dve možnosti
08:11
for dealing with the conflicts
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za reševanje konfliktov,
08:13
that visual theft would bring.
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ki jih prinaša kraja videnega.
08:15
One of those options
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Ena od teh možnosti
08:17
was that we could have retreated
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je umik
08:20
into small family groups.
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v majhne družinske skupnosti.
08:22
Because then the benefits of our ideas and knowledge
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Kajti v tem primeru se koristi od idej in znanja
08:25
would flow just to our relatives.
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delijo samo s sorodniki.
08:27
Had we chosen this option,
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Ko bi bili izbrali to možnost,
08:29
sometime around 200,000 years ago,
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pred kakšnimi 200.000 leti,
08:32
we would probably still be living like the Neanderthals were
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bi verjetno še vedno živeli kot neandertalci
08:35
when we first entered Europe 40,000 years ago.
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ob prvem prihodu v Evropo pred 40.000 leti.
08:38
And this is because in small groups
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To pa zato, ker v majhnih skupnostih
08:40
there are fewer ideas, there are fewer innovations.
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obstaja manj idej, manj inovacij.
08:43
And small groups are more prone to accidents and bad luck.
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Majhne skupnosti so tudi bolj nagnjene k nezgodam in nesreči.
08:46
So if we'd chosen that path,
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Torej, če bi bili izbrali to pot,
08:48
our evolutionary path would have led into the forest --
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bi naša evolucijska pot vodila v gozd --
08:51
and been a short one indeed.
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in bi bila dokaj kratka.
08:53
The other option we could choose
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Druga možnost
08:55
was to develop the systems of communication
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je bila, da razvijemo sisteme komunikacije,
08:58
that would allow us to share ideas
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ki bi nam omogočili
09:00
and to cooperate amongst others.
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in sodelovanje z drugimi.
09:03
Choosing this option would mean
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Izbrati to pot bi pomenilo,
09:05
that a vastly greater fund of accumulated knowledge and wisdom
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da bi bil vsakemu posamezniku na voljo
09:08
would become available to any one individual
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mnogo večji izbor nakopičenega znanja in modrosti,
09:11
than would ever arise from within an individual family
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kot bi ju kdajkoli lahko proizvedla posamezna družina,
09:14
or an individual person on their own.
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kaj šele vsak posameznik.
09:18
Well, we chose the second option,
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No, izbrali smo drugo možnost
09:21
and language is the result.
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in rezultat tega je jezik.
09:24
Language evolved to solve the crisis
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Jezik se je razvil, da bi rešil krizo
09:26
of visual theft.
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kraje videnega.
09:28
Language is a piece of social technology
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Jezik je del socialne tehnologije
09:31
for enhancing the benefits of cooperation --
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za krepitev koristi sodelovanja --
09:34
for reaching agreements, for striking deals
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za doseganje dogovorov, za sklepanje sporazumov
09:37
and for coordinating our activities.
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in za usklajevanje naših dejavnosti.
09:41
And you can see that, in a developing society
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Tako lahko vidite, da bi družba v razvoju,
09:43
that was beginning to acquire language,
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ki je začela razvijati jezik,
09:45
not having language
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brez njega bila
09:47
would be a like a bird without wings.
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kot ptica brez kril.
09:49
Just as wings open up this sphere of air
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Kot krila odprejo pot v zračne sfere,
09:52
for birds to exploit,
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da jih ptice lahko izkoriščajo,
09:54
language opened up the sphere of cooperation
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je jezik odprl sfere sodelovanja,
09:56
for humans to exploit.
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ki jih lahko izkoriščajo ljudje.
09:58
And we take this utterly for granted,
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In to jemljemo kot samoumevno,
10:00
because we're a species that is so at home with language,
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ker smo vrsta, ki ji je jezik nekaj tako domačega.
10:03
but you have to realize
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A vedeti morate,
10:05
that even the simplest acts of exchange that we engage in
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da so celo naša najbolj enostavna dejanja izmenjave
10:08
are utterly dependent upon language.
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popolnoma odvisna od jezika.
10:11
And to see why, consider two scenarios
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Da bi videli, zakaj, poglejmo dva scenarija
10:13
from early in our evolution.
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iz zgodnjega obdobja evolucije.
10:15
Let's imagine that you are really good
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Predstavljajte si, da ste
10:17
at making arrowheads,
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odličen izdelovalec konic za puščice,
10:19
but you're hopeless at making the wooden shafts
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ste pa brezupni pri izdelovanju lesenega dela puščice,
10:22
with the flight feathers attached.
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na katerega so pritrjena krilca.
10:25
Two other people you know are very good at making the wooden shafts,
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Dve drugi osebi, ki ju poznate, sta zelo dobri pri izdelavi lesenih delov,
10:28
but they're hopeless at making the arrowheads.
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izdelava konic jima pa ne gre od rok.
10:31
So what you do is --
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Torej, kaj storite...
10:33
one of those people has not really acquired language yet.
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ena od teh oseb še ne pozna jezika.
10:36
And let's pretend the other one is good at language skills.
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Predstavljajmo si, da ga druga pozna.
10:38
So what you do one day is you take a pile of arrowheads,
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Nekega dne torej vzamete kup konic
10:41
and you walk up to the one that can't speak very well,
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in greste do osebe, ki ne govori prav dobro,
10:43
and you put the arrowheads down in front of him,
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ter postavite konice prednjo,
10:45
hoping that he'll get the idea that you want to trade your arrowheads
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v upanju, da bo razumela, da jih hočete zamenjati
10:48
for finished arrows.
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za dokončane puščice.
10:50
But he looks at the pile of arrowheads, thinks they're a gift,
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Ta človek pa pogleda na kup pred njim, misli, da gre za darilo,
10:52
picks them up, smiles and walks off.
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pobere konice, se nasmehne in odide.
10:55
Now you pursue this guy, gesticulating.
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Stečete za njim in mahate z rokami.
10:57
A scuffle ensues and you get stabbed
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Pride do prepira in ta človek vas zabode
10:59
with one of your own arrowheads.
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z eno vaših lastnih konic.
11:02
Okay, now replay this scene now, and you're approaching the one who has language.
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Prav. Zdaj pa znova odigrajmo to sceno; tokrat se približate tisti osebi, ki pozna jezik.
11:05
You put down your arrowheads and say,
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Prednjo položite svoje konice in rečete:
11:07
"I'd like to trade these arrowheads for finished arrows. I'll split you 50/50."
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"Tele konice bi rad zamenjal za dokončane puščice. Dam vam jih polovico".
11:10
The other one says, "Fine. Looks good to me.
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Druga oseba odgovori: "Prav, sliši se v redu.
11:12
We'll do that."
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Pa dajva".
11:15
Now the job is done.
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Tokrat ste namero uresničili.
11:18
Once we have language,
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Ko enkrat imamo jezik,
11:20
we can put our ideas together and cooperate
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lahko združimo ideje in sodelujemo,
11:22
to have a prosperity
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da dosežemo blaginjo,
11:24
that we couldn't have before we acquired it.
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ki je brez jezika ne bi mogli.
11:27
And this is why our species
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Zato je naša vrsta
11:29
has prospered around the world
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napredovala po vsem svetu,
11:31
while the rest of the animals
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medtem ko ostale živali
11:33
sit behind bars in zoos, languishing.
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životarijo v kletkah v živalskih vrtovih.
11:36
That's why we build space shuttles and cathedrals
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Zato gradimo vesoljske ladje in katedrale,
11:39
while the rest of the world sticks sticks into the ground
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medtem ko ostali svet beza s palicami v tla,
11:41
to extract termites.
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da pride do termitov.
11:43
All right, if this view of language
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Prav, če ta pogled na jezik
11:46
and its value
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in njegovo vrednost
11:48
in solving the crisis of visual theft is true,
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pri reševanju krize kraje videnega drži,
11:51
any species that acquires it
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potem bi vsaka vrsta, ki ga uporablja,
11:53
should show an explosion of creativity and prosperity.
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morala eksplodirati od kreativnosti in razvoja.
11:56
And this is exactly what the archeological record shows.
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In prav to kažejo arheološke najdbe.
11:59
If you look at our ancestors,
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Če se ozremo k našima prednikoma,
12:01
the Neanderthals and the Homo erectus, our immediate ancestors,
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neandertalcu in homo erectusu, našima neposrednima prednikoma,
12:04
they're confined to small regions of the world.
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sta bila oba omejena na majhne regije.
12:07
But when our species arose
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Ko pa se je naša vrsta
12:09
about 200,000 years ago,
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pred okoli 200.000 leti pojavila,
12:11
sometime after that we quickly walked out of Africa
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je kmalu potem odkorakala iz Afrike
12:14
and spread around the entire world,
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in se razširila po vsem svetu
12:17
occupying nearly every habitat on Earth.
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ter zavzela skoraj vse habitate na Zemlji.
12:20
Now whereas other species are confined
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Medtem ko so druge vrste omejene
12:23
to places that their genes adapt them to,
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na kraje, na katere so prilagojeni njihovi geni,
12:26
with social learning and language,
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smo mi lahko s pomočjo socialnega učenja in jezika
12:28
we could transform the environment
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spremenili okolje tako,
12:30
to suit our needs.
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da ustreza našim potrebam.
12:32
And so we prospered in a way
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Tako smo napredovali na način,
12:34
that no other animal has.
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na kakršnega ni nobena druga žival.
12:36
Language really is
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Jezik je res
12:39
the most potent trait that has ever evolved.
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najmočnejša lastnost, ki se je kdajkoli razvila.
12:42
It is the most valuable trait we have
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Je najpomembnejša pomoč
12:45
for converting new lands and resources
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za spreminjanje novih krajev in virov
12:48
into more people and their genes
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v več ljudi in njihovih genov,
12:51
that natural selection has ever devised.
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kot si je naravni izbor kadarkoli zamislil.
12:53
Language really is
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Jezik je res
12:55
the voice of our genes.
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glas naših genov.
12:57
Now having evolved language, though,
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Z razvojem jezika pa smo
12:59
we did something peculiar,
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napravili nekaj nenavadnega,
13:01
even bizarre.
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celo bizarnega.
13:03
As we spread out around the world,
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Ko smo se razširili po svetu,
13:05
we developed thousands of different languages.
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smo razvili na tisoče različnih jezikov.
13:08
Currently, there are about seven or 8,000
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Trenutno na Zemlji govorimo
13:10
different languages spoken on Earth.
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okoli sedem ali osem tisoč različnih jezikov.
13:13
Now you might say, well, this is just natural.
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Rekli boste, ja, to je naravno.
13:15
As we diverge, our languages are naturally going to diverge.
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Kot se razlikujemo mi, se bodo razlikovali tudi jeziki.
13:18
But the real puzzle and irony
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Uganka in ironija pa je,
13:20
is that the greatest density of different languages on Earth
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da je največ različnih jezikov na Zemlji
13:23
is found where people are most tightly packed together.
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tam, kjer so ljudje naseljeni tesno skupaj.
13:27
If we go to the island of Papua New Guinea,
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Pojdimo na otok Papua Nova Gvineja
13:29
we can find about 800 to 1,000
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in našli bomo med 800 in 1.000
13:32
distinct human languages,
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različnih jezikov,
13:34
different human languages,
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različnih jezikov,
13:36
spoken on that island alone.
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in to na enem samem otoku.
13:38
There are places on that island
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Obstajajo kraji na tem otoku,
13:40
where you can encounter a new language
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kjer na novi jezik naletite
13:42
every two or three miles.
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vsaki dve ali tri milje.
13:44
Now, incredible as this sounds,
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Naj se to sliši še tako neverjetno,
13:46
I once met a Papuan man, and I asked him if this could possibly be true.
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nekoč sem srečal Papuanca in ga vprašal, če je to res.
13:49
And he said to me, "Oh no.
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Odgovoril je: "O, ne.
13:51
They're far closer together than that."
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Celo veliko bližje so si".
13:54
And it's true; there are places on that island
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In res: na otoku obstajajo kraji,
13:56
where you can encounter a new language in under a mile.
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kjer nov jezik srečate manj kot na vsako miljo.
13:59
And this is also true of some remote oceanic islands.
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To velja tudi za nekatere oddaljene oceanske otoke.
14:03
And so it seems that we use our language,
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In tako kaže, da jezika ne uporabljamo
14:05
not just to cooperate,
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samo za sodelovanje,
14:07
but to draw rings around our cooperative groups
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ampak tudi za sklepanje obročev okoli svojih skupin sodelovanja,
14:10
and to establish identities,
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in da ustvarjamo identitete
14:12
and perhaps to protect our knowledge and wisdom and skills
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ter morda ščitimo svoje znanje, modrost in sposobnosti
14:15
from eavesdropping from outside.
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pred prisluškovanjem od zunaj.
14:18
And we know this
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To vemo,
14:20
because when we study different language groups
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ker pri raziskovanju različnih jezikovnih skupin
14:22
and associate them with their cultures,
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in povezovanju z njihovimi kulturami
14:24
we see that different languages
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vidimo, da različni jeziki
14:26
slow the flow of ideas between groups.
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upočasnijo tok idej med skupinami.
14:29
They slow the flow of technologies.
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Upočasnijo pretok tehnologij.
14:32
And they even slow the flow of genes.
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Upočasnijo celo pretok genov.
14:35
Now I can't speak for you,
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Lahko govorim samo zase,
14:37
but it seems to be the case
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a zdi se,
14:39
that we don't have sex with people we can't talk to.
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da ne spimo z ljudmi, s katerimi ne moremo govoriti.
14:43
(Laughter)
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(Smeh)
14:45
Now we have to counter that, though,
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Temu seveda oporeka dejstvo,
14:47
against the evidence we've heard
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da se je izkazalo,
14:49
that we might have had some rather distasteful genetic dalliances
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da smo bili vpleteni v določeno dokaj neokusno genetsko flirtanje
14:52
with the Neanderthals and the Denisovans.
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z neandertalci in denisovanci.
14:54
(Laughter)
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(Smeh)
14:56
Okay, this tendency we have,
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No, to naše nagnjenje,
14:58
this seemingly natural tendency we have,
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to nekako naravno nagnjenje
15:00
towards isolation, towards keeping to ourselves,
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k izolaciji, k zaprtosti vase,
15:03
crashes head first into our modern world.
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čelno trči v naš moderni svet.
15:06
This remarkable image
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Tale zanimiva podoba
15:08
is not a map of the world.
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ni zemljevid sveta.
15:10
In fact, it's a map of Facebook friendship links.
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Gre za zemljevid prijateljskih povezav na Facebooku.
15:14
And when you plot those friendship links
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Ko sestavite te povezave
15:16
by their latitude and longitude,
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po zemljepisni širini in dolžini,
15:18
it literally draws a map of the world.
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dobesedno nastane zemljevid sveta.
15:21
Our modern world is communicating
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V našem modernem svetu komuniciramo
15:23
with itself and with each other
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sami s seboj in drug z drugim
15:25
more than it has
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bolj kot kdajkoli
15:27
at any time in its past.
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v preteklosti.
15:29
And that communication, that connectivity around the world,
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In ta komunikacija, ta globalna povezanost,
15:32
that globalization
376
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ta globalizacija,
15:34
now raises a burden.
377
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3000
sedaj postaja breme.
15:37
Because these different languages
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Zaradi različnih jezikov, ki
15:39
impose a barrier, as we've just seen,
379
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postavljajo ovire, kot smo ravno videli,
15:41
to the transfer of goods and ideas
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2000
prenosu blaga in idej
15:43
and technologies and wisdom.
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ter tehnologij in modrosti.
15:45
And they impose a barrier to cooperation.
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Postavljajo ovire sodelovanju.
15:48
And nowhere do we see that more clearly
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In to ni nikjer bolj očitno
15:51
than in the European Union,
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kot v Evropski uniji,
15:53
whose 27 member countries
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3000
katere 27 držav članic
15:56
speak 23 official languages.
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3000
govori 23 uradnih jezikov.
15:59
The European Union
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2000
Evropska unija
16:01
is now spending over one billion euros annually
388
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letno porabi preko milijardo evrov
16:05
translating among their 23 official languages.
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3000
za prevode med 23 uradnimi jeziki.
16:08
That's something on the order
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2000
To je okoli
16:10
of 1.45 billion U.S. dollars
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1,45 milijarde dolarjev,
16:12
on translation costs alone.
392
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samo za stroške prevajanja.
16:15
Now think of the absurdity of this situation.
393
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Pomislite na absurdnost te situacije.
16:17
If 27 individuals
394
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Če bi 27 posameznikov
16:19
from those 27 member states
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iz teh 27 držav članic
16:21
sat around table, speaking their 23 languages,
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sedelo okoli mize in govorilo v svojih 23 jezikih,
16:24
some very simple mathematics will tell you
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vam bo preprost izračun povedal,
16:26
that you need an army of 253 translators
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da bi potrebovali vojsko 253 prevajalcev,
16:30
to anticipate all the pairwise possibilities.
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da bi bili pripravljeni na vse možne jezikovne pare.
16:34
The European Union employs a permanent staff
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Evropska unija stalno zaposluje
16:37
of about 2,500 translators.
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okoli 2.500 prevajalcev.
16:39
And in 2007 alone --
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In samo leta 2007 --
16:41
and I'm sure there are more recent figures --
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prepričan sem, da obstajajo novejši podatki --
16:43
something on the order of 1.3 million pages
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so samo v angleščino prevedli
16:46
were translated into English alone.
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okoli 1,3 milijona strani.
16:49
And so if language really is
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Če je torej jezik resnično
16:52
the solution to the crisis of visual theft,
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pot do rešitve krize kraje videnega,
16:55
if language really is
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če je jezik dejansko
16:57
the conduit of our cooperation,
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vodilo našega sodelovanja,
16:59
the technology that our species derived
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če je tehnologija, ki jo je naša vrsta razvila,
17:02
to promote the free flow and exchange of ideas,
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da bi spodbudila prost pretok in izmenjavo idej
17:06
in our modern world,
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v tem modernem svetu,
17:08
we confront a question.
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potem se moramo soočiti z vprašanjem.
17:10
And that question is whether
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In to je, ali si
17:12
in this modern, globalized world
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v tem modernem globaliziranem svetu
17:14
we can really afford to have all these different languages.
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res lahko privoščimo imeti vse te raznolike jezike.
17:17
To put it this way, nature knows no other circumstance
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Naj pojasnim takole: narava ne pozna nobenega drugega primera,
17:20
in which functionally equivalent traits coexist.
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kjer bi sobivale funkcionalno enakovredne lastnosti.
17:25
One of them always drives the other extinct.
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Ena bo vedno pognala druge v izumrtje.
17:28
And we see this in the inexorable march
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In to vidimo v neusmiljenem pohodu
17:30
towards standardization.
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v smeri standardizacije.
17:32
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring things --
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Obstaja ogromno načinov za merjenje stvari --
17:35
weighing them and measuring their length --
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za tehtanje in merjenje dolžine --
17:37
but the metric system is winning.
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ampak metrični sistem prevladuje.
17:39
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring time,
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Obstaja veliko načinov merjenja časa,
17:42
but a really bizarre base 60 system
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ampak zelo bizarni sistem z osnovo 60,
17:45
known as hours and minutes and seconds
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znan kot ure, minute in sekunde,
17:47
is nearly universal around the world.
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je skoraj univerzalen.
17:50
There are many, many ways
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Obstaja mnogo načinov
17:52
of imprinting CDs or DVDs,
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snemanja CD-jev in DVD-jev,
17:54
but those are all being standardized as well.
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ampak tudi ti postajajo standardizirani.
17:57
And you can probably think of many, many more
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Verjetno lahko pomislite še na številne take primere
18:00
in your own everyday lives.
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iz svojega vsakdana.
18:02
And so our modern world now
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In tako se v našem modernem svetu
18:05
is confronting us with a dilemma.
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soočamo z dilemo.
18:07
And it's the dilemma
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To je dilema
18:09
that this Chinese man faces,
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tegale Kitajca,
18:11
who's language is spoken
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čigar jezik govori
18:13
by more people in the world
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več ljudi
18:15
than any other single language,
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kot katerikoli drugi jezik,
18:18
and yet he is sitting at his blackboard,
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a vseeno sedi pred svojo tablo
18:22
converting Chinese phrases
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in pretvarja kitajske fraze
18:25
into English language phrases.
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v angleške fraze.
18:27
And what this does is it raises the possibility to us
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In to nam povečuje možnosti,
18:30
that in a world in which we want to promote
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da v svetu, v katerem
18:32
cooperation and exchange,
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hočemo spodbujati sodelovanje in izmenjavo,
18:34
and in a world that might be dependent more than ever before
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v svetu, ki je morda bolj kot kdajkoli prej
18:37
on cooperation
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odvisen od sodelovanja,
18:39
to maintain and enhance our levels of prosperity,
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da bi ohranil in okrepil blaginjo,
18:42
his actions suggest to us
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njegova dejanja nam pravijo,
18:44
it might be inevitable
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da je mogoče neizogibno,
18:46
that we have to confront the idea
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da se moramo soočiti z idejo,
18:48
that our destiny is to be one world with one language.
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da nas čaka usoda enega sveta z enim jezikom.
18:51
Thank you.
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Hvala.
18:53
(Applause)
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(Aplavz)
19:01
Matt Ridley: Mark, one question.
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Matt Ridley: Mark, eno vprašanje.
19:03
Svante found that the FOXP2 gene,
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Svante je ugotovil, da so gen FOXP2,
19:06
which seems to be associated with language,
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ki naj bi bil povezan z jezikom,
19:08
was also shared in the same form
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v isti obliki kot mi imeli tudi
19:10
in Neanderthals as us.
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neandertalci.
19:12
Do we have any idea
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Ali morda vemo,
19:14
how we could have defeated Neanderthals
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kako bi bili lahko premagali neandertalce,
19:16
if they also had language?
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če bi tudi oni imeli jezik?
19:18
Mark Pagel: This is a very good question.
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Mark Pagel: To je dobro vprašanje.
19:20
So many of you will be familiar with the idea that there's this gene called FOXP2
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Mnogi med vami poznate idejo o genu FOXP2,
19:23
that seems to be implicated in some ways
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ki naj bi bil na nek način povezan
19:26
in the fine motor control that's associated with language.
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z nadzorom fine motorike, potrebne za jezik.
19:29
The reason why I don't believe that tells us
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Ne verjamem, da nam to pove,
19:31
that the Neanderthals had language
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da so neandertalci imeli jezik,
19:33
is -- here's a simple analogy:
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in sicer zaradi enostavne analogije:
19:36
Ferraris are cars that have engines.
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Ferrari je avto, ki ima motor.
19:39
My car has an engine,
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Moj avto ima motor,
19:41
but it's not a Ferrari.
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ampak ni Ferrari.
19:43
Now the simple answer then
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Enostaven odgovor na to je,
19:45
is that genes alone don't, all by themselves,
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da geni sami po sebi
19:47
determine the outcome
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ne določajo rezultata
19:49
of very complicated things like language.
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tako zapletene stvari, kot je jezik.
19:51
What we know about this FOXP2 and Neanderthals
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Kar vemo o FOXP2 in neandertalcih, je,
19:53
is that they may have had fine motor control of their mouths -- who knows.
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da so morda imeli fino motoriko ust -- kdo ve.
19:57
But that doesn't tell us they necessarily had language.
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A to nam ne pove nujno, da so imeli jezik.
19:59
MR: Thank you very much indeed.
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MR: Najlepša hvala.
20:01
(Applause)
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(Aplavz)
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Mark Pagel - Evolutionary biologistUsing biological evolution as a template, Mark Pagel wonders how languages evolve.
Why you should listen
Mark Pagel builds statistical models to examine the evolutionary processes imprinted in human behavior, from genomics to the emergence of complex systems -- to culture. His latest work examines the parallels between linguistic and biological evolution by applying methods of phylogenetics, or the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups, essentially viewing language as a culturally transmitted replicator with many of the same properties we find in genes. He’s looking for patterns in the rates of evolution of language elements, and hoping to find the social factors that influence trends of language evolution.
At the University of Reading, Pagel heads the Evolution Laboratory in the biology department, where he explores such questions as, "Why would humans evolve a system of communication that prevents them with communicating with other members of the same species?" He has used statistical methods to reconstruct features of dinosaur genomes, and to infer ancestral features of genes and proteins.
He says: "Just as we have highly conserved genes, we have highly conserved words. Language shows a truly remarkable fidelity."
Mark Pagel | Speaker | TED.com