TED2007
VS Ramachandran: 3 clues to understanding your brain
维兰努亚·拉玛钱德朗: 通往心灵中央的旅程
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神经学家维兰努亚·拉玛钱德朗（Vilayanur Ramachandran）在这篇演讲中通过三个惊人的幻觉的案例，告诉我们大脑损伤可以揭示大脑组织和心智之间的联系。（绝大部分的中文翻译来自科学松鼠会网站红猪早已完成的翻译) 。
Vilayanur Ramachandran - Brain expert
Neurologist V.S. Ramachandran looks deep into the brain’s most basic mechanisms. By working with those who have very specific mental disabilities caused by brain injury or stroke, he can map functions of the mind to physical structures of the brain. Full bio
Neurologist V.S. Ramachandran looks deep into the brain’s most basic mechanisms. By working with those who have very specific mental disabilities caused by brain injury or stroke, he can map functions of the mind to physical structures of the brain. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:25
Well, as Chris pointed out, I study the human brain,
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是的，就如克里斯指出的，我研究人的大脑--
00:29
the functions and structure of the human brain.
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人类大脑的功能和结构。
00:31
And I just want you to think for a minute about what this entails.
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我想给大家用一分钟的时间想一下这意味着什么
00:35
Here is this mass of jelly, three-pound mass of jelly
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这是一个硕大的果冻状的物质 - 三英镑质量
00:39
you can hold in the palm of your hand,
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你可以把它放在你的手掌里，
00:42
and it can contemplate the vastness of interstellar space.
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它能思考浩瀚的星际空间，
00:46
It can contemplate the meaning of infinity
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它可以思考“无限”的含义，
00:48
and it can contemplate itself contemplating on the meaning of infinity.
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以及思考它本身去理解“无限”的含义。
00:53
And this peculiar recursive quality that we call self-awareness,
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这种独特的自省的特质我们称为自我意识。
00:58
which I think is the holy grail of neuroscience, of neurology,
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我认为这就是神经系统科学和神经病学的“圣杯”，
01:02
and hopefully, someday, we'll understand how that happens.
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但愿有一天，我们能够明白这是怎么产生的。
01:05
OK, so how do you study this mysterious organ?
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好的，那么你要怎么研究这个神秘的器官呢？
01:08
I mean, you have 100 billion nerve cells,
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我的意思是说你有1000亿个神经元细胞，
01:12
little wisps of protoplasm, interacting with each other,
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(每个是)一小束原生质,它们相互作用,
01:15
and from this activity emerges the whole spectrum of abilities
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从这些活动中，迸发出一系列的能力
01:19
that we call human nature and human consciousness.
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我们称为人性和人的意识。
01:22
How does this happen?
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这是怎么产生的呢?
01:23
Well, there are many ways of approaching the functions of the human brain.
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嗯，我们可以用很多方法去研究人脑的功能。
01:26
One approach, the one we use mainly,
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其中的一个方法，我们所采用的主要的方法，
01:29
is to look at patients with sustained damage to a small region of the brain,
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是观察大脑中一小部分区域遭受持续性损伤的病人，
01:34
where there's been a genetic change in a small region of the brain.
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这部分区域已经发生了一种遗传学改变。
01:36
What then happens is not an across-the-board reduction
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这发生的不是全面性丧失
01:40
in all your mental capacities,
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所有的心智能力,
01:42
a sort of blunting of your cognitive ability.
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换句话说是一种使认知能力迟钝的情况.
01:45
What you get is a highly selective loss of one function,
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这是一种特定功能的丧失
01:48
with other functions being preserved intact,
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而其他功能则完好无损。
01:50
and this gives you some confidence in asserting
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这让你能自信地说：
01:52
that that part of the brain is somehow involved in mediating that function.
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那个区域以某种方式在那个功能的运作中起到作用。
01:56
So you can then map function onto structure,
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这样你就能将功能映射到结构上去，
01:58
and then find out what the circuitry's doing
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并找出这部分神经回路是如何产生
02:01
to generate that particular function.
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这个特定的功能的。
02:03
So that's what we're trying to do.
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这就是我们想做的事。
02:05
So let me give you a few striking examples of this.
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就让我向诸位展示几个惊人的例子。
02:08
In fact, I'm giving you three examples, six minutes each, during this talk.
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事实上，在这个演讲中，我要给出三个例子，每个6分钟。
02:12
The first example is an extraordinary syndrome called Capgras syndrome.
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第一个例子是一种称为“卡普格拉斯综合症"(Capgras Syndrome)的罕见综合症。
02:16
If you look at the first slide there,
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请看那边的第一个幻灯片，
02:18
that's the temporal lobes, frontal lobes, parietal lobes, OK --
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图中显示的是颞叶(temporal lobes)、额叶(frontal lobes)和顶叶(parietal lobes)。
02:23
the lobes that constitute the brain.
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够成大脑的脑叶。
02:25
And if you look, tucked away inside the inner surface of the temporal lobes --
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你再看看，折叠在颞叶的皮层内部的部分
02:29
you can't see it there --
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你在图中看不见的
02:31
is a little structure called the fusiform gyrus.
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是一种称为梭状回(fusiform gyrus)的微小结构。
02:33
And that's been called the face area in the brain,
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它被称为脑的“脸部区域”，
02:36
because when it's damaged, you can no longer recognize people's faces.
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因为如果这个区域遭受损伤，你就无法再识别人们的面孔了。
02:39
You can still recognize them from their voice
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你仍然能够通过嗓音识别他人，
02:41
and say, "Oh yeah, that's Joe,"
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并且说，“哦，对了，这是乔”，
02:43
but you can't look at their face and know who it is, right?
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但你没法看着别人的脸认出这是谁，对吧？
02:46
You can't even recognize yourself in the mirror.
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你就连镜子里的自己都认不出来了。
02:48
I mean, you know it's you because you wink and it winks,
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我的意思是说，当你对着镜子眨眼时，你依然知道那人在眨眼，
02:51
and you know it's a mirror,
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而且你知道那是在镜子里，
02:53
but you don't really recognize yourself as yourself.
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但却真的识别不出那个人就是你自己。
02:56
OK. Now that syndrome is well known as caused by damage to the fusiform gyrus.
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好，现在这种梭状回损伤导致的疾病是众所周知的了。
03:00
But there's another rare syndrome, so rare, in fact,
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但还有一种罕见的综合症，非常罕见，事实上，
03:03
that very few physicians have heard about it, not even neurologists.
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连医生都很少知道，甚至于神经病学家。
03:07
This is called the Capgras delusion,
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它名叫“卡普格拉斯错觉”(Capgras Delusion),
03:09
and that is a patient, who's otherwise completely normal,
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即一个原本完全正常的病患
03:12
has had a head injury, comes out of coma,
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遭受了头部损伤，从昏迷中醒来，
03:15
otherwise completely normal, he looks at his mother
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原本完全正常的病患,他看着自己的母亲
03:18
and says, "This looks exactly like my mother, this woman,
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并且说，“这人看上去跟我母亲一模一样，这个女人，
03:21
but she's an impostor.
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但她是个假冒的，
03:23
She's some other woman pretending to be my mother."
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是个假装成我母亲的女人”。
03:25
Now, why does this happen?
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为什么会这样呢？
03:27
Why would somebody -- and this person is perfectly lucid and intelligent
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为什么这个人完全清醒和理智,
03:30
in all other respects, but when he sees his mother,
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在所有其它方面，但当他看见他母亲时，
03:32
his delusion kicks in and says, it's not mother.
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他的错觉就出现，并说“这不是我母亲”。
03:35
Now, the most common interpretation of this,
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现在，对此最常见的解释是，
03:37
which you find in all the psychiatry textbooks,
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你可以在所有的精神病学的教科书找到，
03:39
is a Freudian view, and that is that this chap --
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是弗洛伊德式的观点，那就是：当这个小伙子
03:43
and the same argument applies to women, by the way,
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顺便提一句，女性也得有这种病的
03:45
but I'll just talk about guys.
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但我只说男的好了
03:47
When you're a little baby, a young baby,
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当你还是个婴儿，一个很小的婴儿的时候，
03:50
you had a strong sexual attraction to your mother.
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你对母亲有种很强烈的性吸引。
03:52
This is the so-called Oedipus complex of Freud.
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这就是所谓的“俄狄浦斯”(Oedipus)恋母情结。
03:54
I'm not saying I believe this,
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我没说我相信这个，
03:56
but this is the standard Freudian view.
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但标准的弗洛伊德观点就是这样的。
03:58
And then, as you grow up, the cortex develops,
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长大后，你的皮层生长发育，
04:01
and inhibits these latent sexual urges towards your mother.
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抑制了对母亲的潜在性欲。
04:05
Thank God, or you would all be sexually aroused when you saw your mother.
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感谢上帝，否则每次你看到你母亲的时候会唤起你的性欲。
04:09
And then what happens is,
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接下来，所发生的是，
04:11
there's a blow to your head, damaging the cortex,
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头部的击打损伤了皮层，
04:13
allowing these latent sexual urges to emerge,
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把潜在的性冲动释放，
04:17
flaming to the surface, and suddenly and inexplicably
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释放到了表层。突然间，莫名其妙地，
04:20
you find yourself being sexually aroused by your mother.
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你觉得自己对母亲产生了性欲。
04:23
And you say, "My God, if this is my mom,
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于是你想：“天啊，这是我妈，
04:25
how come I'm being sexually turned on?
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我怎么可能会觉得性冲动？
04:27
She's some other woman. She's an impostor."
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她一定是别的女人，是个假冒的。”
04:29
It's the only interpretation that makes sense to your damaged brain.
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对你受损伤的大脑来说只有这解释才说的通。
04:33
This has never made much sense to me, this argument.
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我从来不觉得这样的论辩有道理。
04:36
It's very ingenious, as all Freudian arguments are --
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尽管像弗洛伊德的其它论辩一样，它非常巧妙。
04:39
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
04:41
-- but didn't make much sense because I have seen the same delusion,
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但我觉得它没道理，是因为我见过同样的错觉，
04:46
a patient having the same delusion, about his pet poodle.
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有一病患对他的贵宾犬有同样的错觉。
04:48
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
04:49
He'll say, "Doctor, this is not Fifi. It looks exactly like Fifi,
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他说：“大夫，这不是菲菲，它看上去跟菲菲一个样，
04:54
but it's some other dog." Right?
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但它是另一条狗”。对吧？
04:56
Now, you try using the Freudian explanation there.
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现在请你用弗洛伊德的理论解释解释看。
04:58
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
04:59
You'll start talking about the latent bestiality in all humans,
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你将开始讨论有关人类潜在的恋兽性
05:03
or some such thing, which is quite absurd, of course.
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或类似的事情，这当然是相当荒谬的。
05:06
Now, what's really going on?
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实际是怎么回事呢？
05:08
So, to explain this curious disorder,
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为了解释这种奇怪的疾病，
05:10
we look at the structure and functions of the normal visual pathways in the brain.
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我们来看看正常人脑视觉通路的结构和功能。
05:14
Normally, visual signals come in, into the eyeballs,
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通常来说，视觉信号通过眼球
05:17
go to the visual areas in the brain.
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进入脑中的视觉区域
05:19
There are, in fact, 30 areas in the back of your brain concerned with just vision,
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事实上脑后部有30个负责处理视觉信号的区域，
05:22
and after processing all that, the message goes to a small structure
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然后，通过处理所有的这些，信号进入一种微小结构
05:25
called the fusiform gyrus, where you perceive faces.
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它称为“梭状回”，在那里感知到面部图像。
05:30
There are neurons there that are sensitive to faces.
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那里有对面部感知的神经元。
05:32
You can call it the face area of the brain, right?
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你可以称它为“大脑的面部区”。对吧?
05:35
I talked about that earlier.
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我之前谈及过.
05:37
Now, when that area's damaged, you lose the ability to see faces, right?
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那个区域一旦损坏，你就失去了识别面孔的能力。对吧?
05:41
But from that area, the message cascades
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但神经信号还会从那个区域通过，
05:44
into a structure called the amygdala in the limbic system,
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到达边缘系统中称为杏仁核(amygdala)的区域，
05:47
the emotional core of the brain,
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那是脑的情绪核心。
05:49
and that structure, called the amygdala,
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那个结构称为杏仁核(amygdala),
05:51
gauges the emotional significance of what you're looking at.
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它判断你所看见的物体在情绪上的重要性.
05:53
Is it prey? Is it predator? Is it mate?
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那是猎物，是捕食者，是配偶，
05:57
Or is it something absolutely trivial, like a piece of lint,
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还是完全无关紧要的东西。例如一个小线头,
05:59
or a piece of chalk, or a -- I don't want to point to that, but --
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或者一截粉笔,获者-我不想指出来了,但
06:03
or a shoe, or something like that? OK?
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或者是一只鞋,或者类似的东西.
06:05
Which you can completely ignore.
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总之是你可以完全忽略的.
06:07
So if the amygdala is excited, and this is something important,
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如果杏仁核变得兴奋，那么说明这是很重要的东西，
06:10
the messages then cascade into the autonomic nervous system.
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神经信号就会向下发送到自主神经系统.
06:13
Your heart starts beating faster.
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你的心跳开始加速，
06:15
You start sweating to dissipate the heat that you're going to
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你开始出汗以散热，你将紧张
06:18
create from muscular exertion.
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由肌肉收缩产生.
06:20
And that's fortunate, because we can put two electrodes on your palm
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那是幸运的,因为我们可以把两个电极放在手掌上，
06:24
and measure the change in skin resistance produced by sweating.
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来测量汗液产生的皮肤电阻的变化.
06:28
So I can determine, when you're looking at something,
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这样我就能判断,当你看着什么东西的时候,
06:30
whether you're excited or whether you're aroused, or not, OK?
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是兴奋，被唤起，还是没有反应了。对吧?
06:34
And I'll get to that in a minute.
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而我就可以在短时间内知道.
06:36
So my idea was, when this chap looks at an object, when he looks at his --
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我的想法是：当这小伙子看着某个物体时，当他看着他的...
06:40
any object for that matter, it goes to the visual areas and,
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任何有关系的物体,信号到达视觉区,并且...
06:44
however, and it's processed in the fusiform gyrus,
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也就是说,进入梭状回处理
06:47
and you recognize it as a pea plant, or a table,
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你就认出了这件物体是一棵豌豆,一张桌子,
06:50
or your mother, for that matter, OK?
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或者是你的母亲,那是有关系的.对吧?
06:52
And then the message cascades into the amygdala,
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接着,信号就传到杏仁核,
06:55
and then goes down the autonomic nervous system.
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再往下传递到自主神经系统。
06:57
But maybe, in this chap, that wire that goes from the amygdala to the limbic system,
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但或许在这小伙子的脑中，从杏仁核到边缘系统的线路
07:02
the emotional core of the brain, is cut by the accident.
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即到大脑中控制情绪的核心的线路, 被事故切断了。
07:05
So because the fusiform is intact,
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由于梭状回是完整的，
07:07
the chap can still recognize his mother,
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小伙子还能够认出他母亲，
07:10
and says, "Oh yeah, this looks like my mother."
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并且想，“是啊，这人看上去像我母亲”.
07:12
But because the wire is cut to the emotional centers,
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但由于通往情绪中心的通路被切断了，
07:15
he says, "But how come, if it's my mother, I don't experience a warmth?"
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他就会想：“为什么我看见母亲时感觉不到温暖，
07:19
Or terror, as the case may be? Right?
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或者,也许在这个案例中是恐惧,对吧?
07:21
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
07:22
And therefore, he says, "How do I account for this inexplicable lack of emotions?
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于是他就想，"我怎样解释这种无法解释的情绪缺失呢？
07:28
This can't be my mother.
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这不可能是我的母亲。
07:30
It's some strange woman pretending to be my mother."
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而是某个奇怪的女人假装是我的母亲。"
07:32
How do you test this?
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你要怎么验证这个呢？
07:34
Well, what you do is, if you take any one of you here, and put you in front of a screen,
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你要做的是，如果你找来一个人，在他面前放一面屏幕，
07:36
and measure your galvanic skin response,
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一边测量他的皮肤电反应，
07:39
and show pictures on the screen,
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一边在屏幕上放图片给他看，
07:41
I can measure how you sweat when you see an object,
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我能测量你看见一个物体出汗的情况，
07:44
like a table or an umbrella. Of course, you don't sweat.
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比如一张桌子或一把伞时，当然你不会出汗，
07:47
If I show you a picture of a lion, or a tiger, or a pinup, you start sweating, right?
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如果我给你看狮子，老虎或性感女郎海报的照片，你会开始出汗。对吧？
07:52
And, believe it or not, if I show you a picture of your mother --
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信不信由你，如果我给你看你母亲的照片，
07:55
I'm talking about normal people -- you start sweating.
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我说的是正常的人，你会开始流汗，
07:57
You don't even have to be Jewish.
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你甚至不用是个犹太人。
07:59
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
08:01
Now, what happens if you show this patient?
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那么，当你向病人展示时，发生了什么事呢？
08:05
You take the patient and show him pictures on the screen
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你向病人展示图片
08:09
and measure his galvanic skin response.
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并测量他的皮肤电反应
08:11
Tables and chairs and lint, nothing happens, as in normal people,
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看桌子，椅子，线头，没有反应，跟正常人一样；
08:16
but when you show him a picture of his mother,
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当你给他看他母亲的相片，
08:18
the galvanic skin response is flat.
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皮肤电图像是平的，
08:20
There's no emotional reaction to his mother,
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他对自己的母亲也没有情绪反应，
08:22
because that wire going from the visual areas to the emotional centers is cut.
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因为从视觉区通往情绪中心的线路被切断了。
08:27
So his vision is normal because the visual areas are normal,
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他的视觉没有问题，因为视觉区是正常的，
08:30
his emotions are normal -- he'll laugh, he'll cry, so on and so forth --
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他的情绪反应也没有问题，他会哭会笑，等等
08:33
but the wire from vision to emotions is cut
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但是从视觉到情绪的线路却断了，
08:36
and therefore he has this delusion that his mother is an impostor.
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因此，他有了这个母亲是冒牌货的错觉。
08:39
It's a lovely example of the sort of thing we do:
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我们所作的这类事情是个生动的例子，
08:42
take a bizarre, seemingly incomprehensible, neural psychiatric syndrome
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把这种奇怪的、表面看似无法理解的神经－精神病症状
08:46
and say that the standard Freudian view is wrong,
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认为是正统弗洛伊德观点是错误的
08:48
that, in fact, you can come up with a precise explanation
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实际上你可以找到一个精确的解释，
08:52
in terms of the known neural anatomy of the brain.
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从已知的大脑神经解剖的角度。
08:54
By the way, if this patient then goes,
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顺便说一下，如果这病人之后去，
08:56
and mother phones from an adjacent room -- phones him --
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母亲从相邻的房间打电话给他，
09:01
and he picks up the phone, and he says, "Wow, mom, how are you? Where are you?"
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他会拿起电话说：“哇，妈，您好不好？您在哪里？”
09:05
There's no delusion through the phone.
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通过电话就不产生错觉了。
09:07
Then, she approaches him after an hour, he says, "Who are you?
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但一个小时候当母亲走到面前，他会问：“你是谁?”
09:09
You look just like my mother." OK?
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"你看起来像我母亲"
09:11
The reason is there's a separate pathway
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原因是有另一条通路
09:13
going from the hearing centers in the brain to the emotional centers,
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从脑的听觉中心通往情绪中心.
09:17
and that's not been cut by the accident.
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事故并没有切断那条通路.
09:19
So this explains why through the phone he recognizes his mother, no problem.
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这就解释了为什么他能通过电话认出自己的母亲，没问题
09:24
When he sees her in person, he says it's an impostor.
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但当他看到母亲本人，却说那是假冒者。
09:27
OK, how is all this complex circuitry set up in the brain?
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好了，脑中为什么会有如此复杂的回路呢？
09:31
Is it nature, genes, or is it nurture?
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是自然、基因、还是养育的作用？
09:34
And we approach this problem
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我们来试图解答这个问题,
09:36
by considering another curious syndrome called phantom limb.
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通过研究另一奇怪的综合症,它名叫“幻肢”。
09:40
And you all know what a phantom limb is.
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诸位都知道幻肢是什么。
09:42
When an arm is amputated, or a leg is amputated, for gangrene,
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当一条手臂被切除,或一条腿被切除，由于坏疽的原因，
09:45
or you lose it in war -- for example, in the Iraq war,
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或在在战争中失去，比如在伊拉克战争中，
09:47
it's now a serious problem --
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现在这是一个严重的问题
09:49
you continue to vividly feel the presence of that missing arm,
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你依然能强烈地感受到那条已经失去的手臂的存在，
09:53
and that's called a phantom arm or a phantom leg.
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那就称为幻臂(phantom arm)或幻腿(phantom leg)。
09:56
In fact, you can get a phantom with almost any part of the body.
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实际上，身体的任何部分都会产生幻肢现象。
09:58
Believe it or not, even with internal viscera.
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信不信由你，即使内脏器官都不例外。
10:01
I've had patients with the uterus removed -- hysterectomy --
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我有位病人被摘除了子宫，子宫切除术(hysterectomy)
10:05
who have a phantom uterus, including phantom menstrual cramps
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她得了幻子宫病，包括幻月经痛
10:10
at the appropriate time of the month.
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在每个月适当的时候。
10:12
And in fact, one student asked me the other day,
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事实上，有一天一个学生问我，
10:14
"Do they get phantom PMS?"
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她们有没有幻经前综合症？
10:16
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
10:17
A subject ripe for scientific enquiry, but we haven't pursued that.
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倒是个不错的科研课题，但我们还没有研究那个。
10:21
OK, now the next question is,
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好了，接下来的问题是：
10:24
what can you learn about phantom limbs by doing experiments?
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通过实验，你能从幻肢现象中学到什么？
10:27
One of the things we've found was,
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我们发现了一种现象是，
10:29
about half the patients with phantom limbs
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有一半幻肢的病人，
10:31
claim that they can move the phantom.
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宣称自己能移动那条幻肢。
10:33
It'll pat his brother on the shoulder,
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能用幻肢拍兄弟的肩膀，
10:35
it'll answer the phone when it rings, it'll wave goodbye.
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能在电话铃响时拿起听筒、能挥手道别。
10:37
These are very compelling, vivid sensations.
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他们有种十分强烈的活生生的感觉。
10:40
The patient's not delusional.
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病患不是在妄想。
10:42
He knows that the arm is not there,
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他知道手臂已经不在了，
10:44
but, nevertheless, it's a compelling sensory experience for the patient.
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但感觉还是非常强烈。
10:47
But however, about half the patients, this doesn't happen.
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然而，病人中的另一半没有这种感觉。
10:50
The phantom limb -- they'll say, "But doctor, the phantom limb is paralyzed.
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这幻肢... 他们告诉我：“大夫，我的幻肢被麻痹了，
10:54
It's fixed in a clenched spasm and it's excruciatingly painful.
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它固定在绷紧的痉挛的状态，难以忍受的疼痛。
10:57
If only I could move it, maybe the pain will be relieved."
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如果我能移动它，疼痛或许就会减轻。“
11:00
Now, why would a phantom limb be paralyzed?
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为什么幻肢会被麻痹呢？
11:03
It sounds like an oxymoron.
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听上去自相矛盾。
11:05
But when we were looking at the case sheets, what we found was,
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当我们查看病例表时，我们发现，
11:08
these people with the paralyzed phantom limbs,
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这些感觉幻肢被麻痹的人，
11:10
the original arm was paralyzed because of the peripheral nerve injury.
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他们的手臂原先曾被麻痹过，原因是周围神经受伤，
11:14
The actual nerve supplying the arm was severed,
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控制手臂的神经被隔断，
11:17
was cut, by say, a motorcycle accident.
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被切断了，比如在一次车祸中。
11:19
So the patient had an actual arm, which is painful,
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这个病患曾经真的有过一个手臂，很疼，
11:22
in a sling for a few months or a year, and then,
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挂着绷带好几个月或一年，然后，
11:26
in a misguided attempt to get rid of the pain in the arm,
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在一次错误的尝试中，为了消除手臂的疼痛的，
11:29
the surgeon amputates the arm,
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外科医生做了截肢手术。
11:31
and then you get a phantom arm with the same pains, right?
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接下来，就有了条同样疼痛的幻肢。对吧？
11:35
And this is a serious clinical problem.
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这可是个严重的临床问题。
11:37
Patients become depressed.
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病人们变得心情沮丧，
11:39
Some of them are driven to suicide, OK?
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导致有些人想自杀。
11:41
So, how do you treat this syndrome?
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那么你要怎么治疗这种综合症呢？
11:43
Now, why do you get a paralyzed phantom limb?
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为什么会有人觉得幻肢麻痹？
11:45
When I looked at the case sheet, I found that they had an actual arm,
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当我查看病历的时候，我发现他们有过真实的手臂，
11:49
and the nerves supplying the arm had been cut,
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控制手臂的神经被切断，
11:52
and the actual arm had been paralyzed,
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真实的手臂被麻痹了，
11:55
and lying in a sling for several months before the amputation,
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在截肢前挂着绷带好几个月。
11:59
and this pain then gets carried over into the phantom itself.
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这种疼痛被带到了幻肢里。
12:05
Why does this happen?
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为什么会这样呢？
12:07
When the arm was intact, but paralyzed,
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当手臂完好但麻痹的时候，
12:09
the brain sends commands to the arm, the front of the brain, saying, "Move,"
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大脑向手臂发送指令，前脑命令“移动”，
12:12
but it's getting visual feedback saying, "No."
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但视觉反馈却说“动不了”；
12:14
Move. No. Move. No. Move. No.
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动―动不了―动―动不了...
12:18
And this gets wired into the circuitry of the brain,
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这被固定在了脑的神经回路中，
12:21
and we call this learned paralysis, OK?
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我们把这叫做“习得行麻痹 ”（learned paralysis）。
12:24
The brain learns, because of this Hebbian, associative link,
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脑了解到，因为这种海伯联结 (Hebbian associative link),
12:28
that the mere command to move the arm
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使这个移动手臂的简单指令，
12:31
creates a sensation of a paralyzed arm.
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产生了手臂麻痹的感觉。
12:33
And then, when you've amputated the arm,
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接着，当你切断了手臂，
12:35
this learned paralysis carries over into your body image
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这种“习得行麻痹 ”进入了你的身体意象，
12:39
and into your phantom, OK?
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进入了你的幻肢。可以吧？
12:42
Now, how do you help these patients?
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你要怎么帮助这些病人呢？
12:44
How do you unlearn the learned paralysis,
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你要怎样解除习得性麻痹，
12:46
so you can relieve him of this excruciating, clenching spasm
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好让他解除从那个幻臂产生的
12:50
of the phantom arm?
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剧痛的痉挛？
12:52
Well, we said, what if you now send the command to the phantom,
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我们说了，如果现在你向幻肢发送指令，
12:57
but give him visual feedback that it's obeying his command, right?
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但却给他服从指令的视觉反馈，会怎样？
13:01
Maybe you can relieve the phantom pain, the phantom cramp.
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说不定就会减轻幻肢疼痛和痉挛了。
13:04
How do you do that? Well, virtual reality.
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你要怎样做到这一点？可以用虚拟现实(virtual reality)，
13:06
But that costs millions of dollars.
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但那会花上几百万。
13:08
So, I hit on a way of doing this for three dollars,
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我想到了一个成本三美元的办法，
13:11
but don't tell my funding agencies.
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别跟我的赞助机构说。
13:13
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
13:14
OK? What you do is you create what I call a mirror box.
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你要做的是制造出一个我称为“镜盒”(mirror box)的东西。
13:18
You have a cardboard box with a mirror in the middle,
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你在纸板盒中间放面镜子，
13:20
and then you put the phantom -- so my first patient, Derek, came in.
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然后叫病人把幻肢放入盒子里。我的第一个病人，德里克
13:24
He had his arm amputated 10 years ago.
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他在10年前截肢。
13:27
He had a brachial avulsion, so the nerves were cut
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此前他有臂丛神经撕脱伤(brachial avulsion)，神经被切断了，
13:30
and the arm was paralyzed, lying in a sling for a year, and then the arm was amputated.
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手臂被麻痹了，挂着绷带一年，接着手臂被切断了。
13:34
He had a phantom arm, excruciatingly painful, and he couldn't move it.
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他有一个幻肢，难以忍受的疼痛，并且他不能移动它。
13:36
It was a paralyzed phantom arm.
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这是一个“习得行麻痹”的手臂。
13:38
So he came there, and I gave him a mirror like that, in a box,
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他来看病的时候，我给了他一个象这样的镜子，
13:42
which I call a mirror box, right?
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我称之为镜盒，对吧？
13:45
And the patient puts his phantom left arm,
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病人将其幻肢左臂
13:48
which is clenched and in spasm, on the left side of the mirror,
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(绷紧痉挛的那只)放入镜子的左边，
13:50
and the normal hand on the right side of the mirror,
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将正常的手放在镜子的右侧，
13:52
and makes the same posture, the clenched posture,
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并做出和左臂同样的姿势，握紧的姿势，
13:56
and looks inside the mirror. And what does he experience?
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并且看着镜子，他感觉到了什么？
13:59
He looks at the phantom being resurrected,
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他感觉幻肢又复活了。
14:02
because he's looking at the reflection of the normal arm in the mirror,
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因为他看到了镜中的手臂，
14:06
and it looks like this phantom has been resurrected.
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就好像他的幻肢又重生了。
14:08
"Now," I said, "now, look, wiggle your phantom --
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接着我说：“现在摆动一下你幻肢，
14:11
your real fingers, or move your real fingers while looking in the mirror."
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你真正的手指，或者在看着镜子的同时移动你真正的手指。“
14:15
He's going to get the visual impression that the phantom is moving, right?
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这样他会得到幻肢正在移动的视觉印象，对吧？
14:19
That's obvious, but the astonishing thing is,
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这是显而易见的。但令人惊讶的是，
14:21
the patient then says, "Oh my God, my phantom is moving again,
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病人说，“天啊，我的幻臂又移动了，
14:24
and the pain, the clenching spasm, is relieved."
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那疼痛，那绷紧的痉挛，减轻了。“
14:26
And remember, my first patient who came in --
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记住，这是来我这儿的第一个病人...
14:29
(Applause)
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(鼓掌)
14:30
-- thank you. (Applause)
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谢谢 (鼓掌)
14:34
My first patient came in, and he looked in the mirror,
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我的第一个病人来看病时，他看着镜子，
14:37
and I said, "Look at your reflection of your phantom."
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我说，“看着自己幻肢的在镜子里的映像“
14:40
And he started giggling, he says, "I can see my phantom."
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他咯咯笑起来，说：“我看见我的幻肢了。”
14:42
But he's not stupid. He knows it's not real.
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他不傻，知道这不是真实的，
14:44
He knows it's a mirror reflection,
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他知道那只是个镜像，
14:46
but it's a vivid sensory experience.
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但这是非常鲜活的体验。
14:48
Now, I said, "Move your normal hand and phantom."
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接着我说：“动一下你真实的那只手和幻肢手”。
14:51
He said, "Oh, I can't move my phantom. You know that. It's painful."
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他说：“我可没法移动我的幻肢手，你知道的，很疼。”
14:53
I said, "Move your normal hand."
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我说：“那动一下正常的那只手吧。 ”
14:55
And he says, "Oh my God, my phantom is moving again. I don't believe this!
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他说：“哦，天，我的幻肢又在动了，简直不能相信，
14:57
And my pain is being relieved." OK?
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我的疼痛也好些了。”
15:00
And then I said, "Close your eyes."
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接着我说：“把眼睛闭上。”
15:01
He closes his eyes.
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他闭上眼。
15:03
"And move your normal hand."
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“动一下你正常的那只手。”“
15:04
"Oh, nothing. It's clenched again."
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"厄，感觉不到了，它又绷紧了。”
15:05
"OK, open your eyes."
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"睁开眼。”
15:07
"Oh my God, oh my God, it's moving again!"
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“哦，天，又在动了！”
15:08
So, he was like a kid in a candy store.
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他就像个进了糖果店的小孩。
15:10
So, I said, OK, this proves my theory about learned paralysis
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所以，我说这证明了我的理论，关于习得性麻痹
15:15
and the critical role of visual input,
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和视觉输入所起重要作用的理论.
15:17
but I'm not going to get a Nobel Prize
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但我可不会获得诺贝尔奖,
15:19
for getting somebody to move his phantom limb.
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因为让人成功移动幻肢.
15:21
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
15:22
(Applause)
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(鼓掌)
15:23
It's a completely useless ability, if you think about it.
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细想之下，这种完全无用的能力，
15:26
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
15:27
But then I started realizing, maybe other kinds of paralysis
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但紧接着我开始意识到,也许其他类型的瘫痪,
15:31
that you see in neurology, like stroke, focal dystonias --
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你在神经病学中看到的,例如中风,肌张力障碍(focal dystonias) --
15:36
there may be a learned component to this,
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也许都有习得的成分，
15:38
which you can overcome with the simple device of using a mirror.
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都能用一个装了镜子的简单装置予以克服。
15:41
So, I said, "Look, Derek" --
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我对说：“看,德里克"--
15:43
well, first of all, the guy can't just go around carrying a mirror to alleviate his pain --
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首先, 病患不能只是四处走动, 带着镜子来减轻痛苦.
15:46
I said, "Look, Derek, take it home and practice with it for a week or two.
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我说,"看,德里克,把它带回家，自己练习一两个礼拜，
15:50
Maybe, after a period of practice,
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也许经过一段时间的练习,
15:52
you can dispense with the mirror, unlearn the paralysis,
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你能扔掉镜子，忘却麻痹，
15:54
and start moving your paralyzed arm,
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并且开始移动幻肢，
15:56
and then, relieve yourself of pain."
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消除疼痛。”
15:58
So he said OK, and he took it home.
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他说好啊，他就带它回家。
16:00
I said, "Look, it's, after all, two dollars. Take it home."
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我说：“两块钱而已，带回家吧。”
16:02
So, he took it home, and after two weeks, he phones me,
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于是他把镜子带回了家。两周后他打来电话来
16:05
and he said, "Doctor, you're not going to believe this."
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说：“大夫，你一定不相信。”
16:07
I said, "What?"
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我说：“什么？”
16:08
He said, "It's gone."
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他说：“它不见了。”
16:10
I said, "What's gone?"
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我说：“什么不见了。”
16:11
I thought maybe the mirror box was gone.
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我还以为镜盒可能不见了。
16:13
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
16:14
He said, "No, no, no, you know this phantom I've had for the last 10 years?
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他说：“不不不，这个跟了我十年的幻肢，
16:17
It's disappeared."
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它消失了！”
16:19
And I said -- I got worried, I said, my God,
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我说,我担心,我说,天啊
16:21
I mean I've changed this guy's body image,
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我改变了这个人的体象，
16:23
what about human subjects, ethics and all of that?
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有关人类主体, 伦理,所有的方面会有什么问题吗？
16:26
And I said, "Derek, does this bother you?"
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我说：“德里克,你觉得困扰吗？”
16:28
He said, "No, last three days, I've not had a phantom arm
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他说：“才没有！过去三天，我没了幻肢，
16:31
and therefore no phantom elbow pain, no clenching,
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于是就没了幻肢肘关节痛，没了握拳，
16:34
no phantom forearm pain, all those pains are gone away.
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没了幻肢上臂疼痛，所有这些疼痛都消失了。
16:37
But the problem is I still have my phantom fingers dangling from the shoulder,
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但问题的，我的幻手指还挂在肩膀这边，
16:41
and your box doesn't reach."
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你的镜子够不到"
16:43
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
16:44
"So, can you change the design and put it on my forehead,
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"你能不能把设计改一下，把它放在我的前额,
16:47
so I can, you know, do this and eliminate my phantom fingers?"
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让我作类似的练习消除我的幻手指？”
16:50
He thought I was some kind of magician.
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他认为我是某类魔术师.
16:52
Now, why does this happen?
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为什么会发生这样的事？
16:53
It's because the brain is faced with tremendous sensory conflict.
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因为脑面临巨大的感觉冲突，
16:56
It's getting messages from vision saying the phantom is back.
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它收到视觉信号，说幻肢又回来了；
16:59
On the other hand, there's no appropriate reception,
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但另一方面，又没有接收到相应的
17:01
muscle signals saying that there is no arm, right?
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来自肌肉的信号说它没有手臂,对吧?
17:05
And your motor command saying there is an arm,
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你的动作信号也在告诉你有一只手臂。
17:07
and, because of this conflict, the brain says, to hell with it,
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以为这种冲突,大脑说,见鬼去吧，
17:10
there is no phantom, there is no arm, right?
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根本就没有什么幻肢，这条手臂已经不在了。”
17:13
It goes into a sort of denial -- negates the signals.
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它进入某种否认,否认了那个信号.
17:15
And when the arm disappears, the bonus is, the pain disappears
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当手臂消失时,好处就是疼痛也一并消失，
17:19
because you can't have disembodied pain floating out there, in space.
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因为不可能有一种无形体的疼痛漂浮空中。
17:23
So, that's the bonus.
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那是奖励.
17:25
Now, this technique has been tried on dozens of patients
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此疗法现在已经在几十个病人身上试验了
17:27
by other groups in Helsinki,
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在赫尔辛基的其他团体中.
17:29
so it may prove to be valuable as a treatment for phantom pain,
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也许能证明是一种治疗幻肢疼痛的有价值的方法。
17:32
and indeed, people have tried it for stroke rehabilitation.
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的确，人们已经试验用它复原中风。
17:34
Stroke you normally think of as damage to the fibers,
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通常认为中风是由于神经纤维受损
17:37
nothing you can do about it.
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你没有办法做什么。
17:39
But, it turns out some component of stroke paralysis is also learned paralysis,
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然而，结果发现是有一些中风瘫痪的成分也是习得性麻痹，
17:44
and maybe that component can be overcome using mirrors.
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或许也能用镜子加以克服。
17:47
This has also gone through clinical trials,
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临床试验也正在进行中，
17:49
helping lots and lots of patients.
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以帮助许多病患。
17:51
OK, let me switch gears now to the third part of my talk,
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好了，接下来开始讲第三部分，
17:55
which is about another curious phenomenon called synesthesia.
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是关于另一个奇怪现象的，它叫做“共感”（Synesthesia）。
17:59
This was discovered by Francis Galton in the nineteenth century.
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这是由弗朗西斯.高尔顿在十九世纪发现的。
18:02
He was a cousin of Charles Darwin.
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他是查尔斯.达尔文的表亲。
18:04
He pointed out that certain people in the population,
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他指出，人群中某些成员，
18:06
who are otherwise completely normal, had the following peculiarity:
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其他方面均与常人无异，却有如下特别之处：
18:10
every time they see a number, it's colored.
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他们看到一个数字时，就能感受到色彩。
18:13
Five is blue, seven is yellow, eight is chartreuse,
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5是蓝色的，7是黄色的，8是黄绿色的，
18:17
nine is indigo, OK?
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9是紫蓝色的。
18:19
Bear in mind, these people are completely normal in other respects.
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记住，这些人其他方面完全正常。
18:22
Or C sharp -- sometimes, tones evoke color.
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或者升C，有时候从音符中感觉到颜色，
18:25
C sharp is blue, F sharp is green,
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升C是蓝色的，升F是绿色的，
18:28
another tone might be yellow, right?
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另一个音符也许是黄色的。
18:31
Why does this happen?
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为什么会这样？
18:33
This is called synesthesia. Galton called it synesthesia,
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这成为“共感”，高尔顿把这称为“共感”(synaesthesia).
18:35
a mingling of the senses.
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一种感觉的混合。
18:37
In us, all the senses are distinct.
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对我们来说，感觉之间是不同的，
18:39
These people muddle up their senses.
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这些人会混合他们的感觉。
18:41
Why does this happen?
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为什么会这样？
18:42
One of the two aspects of this problem are very intriguing.
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这个问题的两个方面中的一个非常有意思，
18:44
Synesthesia runs in families,
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“共感”在家族中遗传。
18:46
so Galton said this is a hereditary basis, a genetic basis.
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因此高尔顿说认为其中有遗传基础，基因基础。
18:49
Secondly, synesthesia is about -- and this is what gets me to my point
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其次，“共感”是一种关于 - 这是我要阐明的观点
18:53
about the main theme of this lecture, which is about creativity --
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有关这个演讲的主题，与创造力有关。
18:56
synesthesia is eight times more common among artists, poets, novelists
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“共感”在艺术家，诗人，作家中更普遍，是普通人的8倍。
19:01
and other creative people than in the general population.
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以及其他有创意的人，对比于普通的人群。
19:04
Why would that be?
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为什么会这样？
19:05
I'm going to answer that question.
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我就要回答这个问题，
19:07
It's never been answered before.
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此前没有人回答过。
19:09
OK, what is synesthesia? What causes it?
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好了，什么是共感，成因是什么？
19:10
Well, there are many theories.
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有许多理论做出解释。
19:11
One theory is they're just crazy.
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一种理论认为，他们就是疯了而已。
19:13
Now, that's not really a scientific theory, so we can forget about it.
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那算不上什么科学理论，所以别管它了。
19:16
Another theory is they are acid junkies and potheads, right?
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另一个理论是这些人吸毒者，大麻瘾君子。
19:20
Now, there may be some truth to this,
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或许有点道理，
19:22
because it's much more common here in the Bay Area than in San Diego.
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因为共感在湾区比在圣地亚哥常见。
19:24
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
19:25
OK. Now, the third theory is that --
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好的。第三个理论是，
19:28
well, let's ask ourselves what's really going on in synesthesia. All right?
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我们来问问自己：共感到底是什么？
19:33
So, we found that the color area and the number area
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我们发现，图中的颜色区和数字区
19:36
are right next to each other in the brain, in the fusiform gyrus.
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在大脑的梭状回里彼此相邻，
19:39
So we said, there's some accidental cross wiring
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因此我们认为，之间发生了意外的串线（cross-wiring），
19:41
between color and numbers in the brain.
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在大脑中颜色和数字区之间。
19:44
So, every time you see a number, you see a corresponding color,
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所以，每次你看见数字，就会同时相应的颜色，
19:47
and that's why you get synesthesia.
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于是就有了共感。
19:49
Now remember -- why does this happen?
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现在记住，为什么这会发生呢？
19:51
Why would there be crossed wires in some people?
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为什么有些人会发生串线呢？
19:53
Remember I said it runs in families?
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记得我说过这是家族遗传的。
19:55
That gives you the clue.
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这就给了你线索。
19:57
And that is, there is an abnormal gene,
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说不定是某个异常的基因
19:59
a mutation in the gene that causes this abnormal cross wiring.
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一种基因突变，引起了异常的串线。
20:02
In all of us, it turns out
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结果是，我们每个人，
20:04
we are born with everything wired to everything else.
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我们在出生时，所有的与其他相连，
20:08
So, every brain region is wired to every other region,
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脑中的所有区域都彼此相连，
20:11
and these are trimmed down to create
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它们被修剪成为
20:13
the characteristic modular architecture of the adult brain.
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成人脑中的不同特征模块。
20:16
So, if there's a gene causing this trimming
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如果有一个基因控制这种修剪过程,
20:18
and if that gene mutates,
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并且基因变异了,
20:20
then you get deficient trimming between adjacent brain areas.
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那么你在不同脑区中的修剪就不充分了.
20:23
And if it's between number and color, you get number-color synesthesia.
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并且如果这是在数字和颜色之间,你就得了数字-颜色共感症.
20:26
If it's between tone and color, you get tone-color synesthesia.
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如果这是在音调和颜色之间,你就得音调-颜色共感症.
20:29
So far, so good.
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到目前还好。
20:31
Now, what if this gene is expressed everywhere in the brain,
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那么，如果此基因在脑中的所有地方都启作用又怎样？
20:33
so everything is cross-connected?
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那么所有的地方都相联如何?
20:34
Well, think about what artists, novelists and poets have in common,
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好，想一下艺术家、作家和诗人之间有什么共通的地方,
20:40
the ability to engage in metaphorical thinking,
444
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他们都能进行隐喻思维（metaphorical thinking），
20:43
linking seemingly unrelated ideas,
445
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把表面上无关的想法联系在一起,
20:45
such as, "It is the east, and Juliet is the Sun."
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比如“这是东方,朱丽叶就是太阳。”
20:48
Well, you don't say, Juliet is the sun,
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你不会说朱丽叶是个太阳
20:50
does that mean she's a glowing ball of fire?
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这句话的意思难道是“她是个炙热的火球”吗？
20:52
I mean, schizophrenics do that, but it's a different story, right?
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精神分裂的人会那么想，但那是另外一回事，对吗？
20:55
Normal people say, she's warm like the sun,
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正常人会说她像太阳一样温暖，
20:58
she's radiant like the sun, she's nurturing like the sun.
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她象太阳一样发光，她象太阳一样哺育他人。
21:00
Instantly, you've found the links.
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你马上就能领会其中的联系。
21:02
Now, if you assume that this greater cross wiring
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现在，如果你假设这种较大的串线,
21:05
and concepts are also in different parts of the brain,
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以及概念也位于脑的不同部分，
21:08
then it's going to create a greater propensity
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那就说明有一种较大的倾向
21:11
towards metaphorical thinking and creativity
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对于隐喻思维和创造性
21:14
in people with synesthesia.
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在有共感症的人当中(更为突出).
21:16
And, hence, the eight times more common incidence of synesthesia
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因此，(某类人群)患共感症是常人的八倍
21:19
among poets, artists and novelists.
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其中包括艺术家、诗人和作家.
21:21
OK, it's a very phrenological view of synesthesia.
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好的,这是关于共感症的一种颅相学的观点.
21:24
The last demonstration -- can I take one minute?
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看最后一个演示。-- 给我一分钟时间好吗?
21:26
(Applause)
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(鼓掌)
21:28
OK. I'm going to show you that you're all synesthetes, but you're in denial about it.
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我将向诸位展示：你们全都有共感症，只是自己不承认罢了。
21:33
Here's what I call Martian alphabet. Just like your alphabet,
464
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图中是我称为"火星字母表"的东西，就象你的字母表.
21:37
A is A, B is B, C is C.
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A是A,B是B,C是C,
21:40
Different shapes for different phonemes, right?
466
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不同的音素有着不同的形状,对吧?
21:43
Here, you've got Martian alphabet.
467
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这是"火星字母表".
21:45
One of them is Kiki, one of them is Buba.
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其中一个叫“Kiki”，另一个叫“Buba”。
21:47
Which one is Kiki and which one is Buba?
469
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哪一个是“Kiki”，哪一个是“Buba”呢？
21:49
How many of you think that's Kiki and that's Buba? Raise your hands.
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有多少人觉得这边是“kiki”，那边是“buba”的?举下手。
21:51
Well, it's one or two mutants.
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好了，有一两位突变体。
21:53
(Laughter)
472
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(众笑)
21:54
How many of you think that's Buba, that's Kiki? Raise your hands.
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有多少人觉得这边是“Buba"，那边是“Kiki”的?举下手。
21:56
Ninety-nine percent of you.
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百分之九十九的人。
21:58
Now, none of you is a Martian. How did you do that?
475
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好了，诸位都不是火星人，你们是怎么认出来？
22:00
It's because you're all doing a cross-model synesthetic abstraction,
476
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因为诸位都在进行跨模块的共感的抽象，
22:05
meaning you're saying that that sharp inflection -- ki-ki,
477
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意思是，你觉得那尖尖的东西看上去像“Kiki”。
22:09
in your auditory cortex, the hair cells being excited -- Kiki,
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在你的听觉皮层中，听毛细胞受刺激,"Kiki"
22:14
mimics the visual inflection, sudden inflection of that jagged shape.
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产生了视觉上的曲折,一种突然的曲折,就像那个锯齿的形状.
22:17
Now, this is very important, because what it's telling you
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这非常的重要.因为它告诉你
22:20
is your brain is engaging in a primitive --
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你的大脑正在从事一种原始的
22:22
it's just -- it looks like a silly illusion,
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它就象-就象一个可笑的错觉,
22:24
but these photons in your eye are doing this shape,
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这些光子在你的眼中形成这个形状
22:28
and hair cells in your ear are exciting the auditory pattern,
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同时你耳中的听毛细胞对这个听觉模式兴奋,
22:31
but the brain is able to extract the common denominator.
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但大脑能够抽取两者的共性。
22:36
It's a primitive form of abstraction,
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这是抽象的一种原始形式.
22:38
and we now know this happens in the fusiform gyrus of the brain,
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我们现在知道，这发生在大脑的梭状回.
22:43
because when that's damaged,
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因为当那里受损时,
22:44
these people lose the ability to engage in Buba Kiki,
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病人就失去判断“Buba Kiki”的能力，
22:48
but they also lose the ability to engage in metaphor.
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他们也失去了比喻的能力。
22:50
If you ask this guy, what -- "all that glitters is not gold,"
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你要是问他：“发光的未必是黄金"
22:54
what does that mean?"
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这句话是什么意思?
22:56
The patient says, "Well, if it's metallic and shiny, it doesn't mean it's gold.
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病人会说：“意思是金属的会闪光的不一定是黄金,
22:58
You have to measure its specific gravity, OK?"
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你得测试它的比重。”
23:01
So, they completely miss the metaphorical meaning.
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他完全不明白其中的比喻意义。
23:04
So, this area is about eight times the size in higher --
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这个脑区在体积上八倍于
23:07
especially in humans -- as in lower primates.
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如果比较人类和低等灵长类.
23:10
Something very interesting is going on here in the angular gyrus,
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这边的角型脑回(angular gyrus)区域很有意思，
23:13
because it's the crossroads between hearing, vision and touch,
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因为它是视觉、听觉和触觉的交汇处。
23:16
and it became enormous in humans. And something very interesting is going on.
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人类的角型脑回特别大，有一些非常有意思的(研究)正在进行
23:20
And I think it's a basis of many uniquely human abilities
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我认为这对许多人类特有的能力是非常基本的,
23:23
like abstraction, metaphor and creativity.
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比如抽象、类比，和创新。
23:26
All of these questions that philosophers have been studying for millennia,
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这些问题，哲学家已经研究上千年了,
23:29
we scientists can begin to explore by doing brain imaging,
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现在我们科学家能够通过脑成像,
23:33
and by studying patients and asking the right questions.
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研究病人，还有提出正确的问题来开始进行探索了。
23:35
Thank you.
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谢谢.
23:37
(Applause)
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(鼓掌)
23:38
Sorry about that.
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很抱歉.
23:39
(Laughter)
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(众笑)
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Vilayanur Ramachandran - Brain expertNeurologist V.S. Ramachandran looks deep into the brain’s most basic mechanisms. By working with those who have very specific mental disabilities caused by brain injury or stroke, he can map functions of the mind to physical structures of the brain.
Why you should listen
V.S. Ramachandran is a mesmerizing speaker, able to concretely and simply describe the most complicated inner workings of the brain. His investigations into phantom limb pain, synesthesia and other brain disorders allow him to explore (and begin to answer) the most basic philosophical questions about the nature of self and human consciousness.
Ramachandran is the director of the Center for Brain and Cognition at the University of California, San Diego, and an adjunct professor at the Salk Institute. He is the author of Phantoms in the Brain (the basis for a Nova special), A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness and The Man with the Phantom Twin: Adventures in the Neuroscience of the Human Brain.
Vilayanur Ramachandran | Speaker | TED.com