TEDWomen 2018
Karissa Sanbonmatsu: The biology of gender, from DNA to the brain
Karissa Sanbonmatsu: 性别生物学，从基因到大脑
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性别究竟是如何起作用的？生物学家Karissa Sanbonmatsu说，这不仅仅跟染色体有关。在这次富有远见的演讲中，她分享了表观遗传学的新发现。表观遗传学是一项新兴的研究，研究DNA活动是如何根据创伤或饮食等社会因素而永久改变的。一起通过这个演讲来了解生活经历如何塑造基因表达的方式，以及这对我们如何理解性别意味着什么。
Karissa Sanbonmatsu - Structural biologist
Karissa Sanbonmatsu investigates how DNA allows cells in our body to remember events that take place. Full bio
Karissa Sanbonmatsu investigates how DNA allows cells in our body to remember events that take place. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:14
So what does it mean to be a woman?
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做女人意味着什么？
00:19
We all have XX chromosomes, right?
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我们都有XX染色体，对吧？
00:22
Actually, that's not true.
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事实上，并非如此。
00:25
Some women are mosaics.
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一些女性的性别特征并不清晰。
她们的染色体类型是X，
XY和XXY的混合体。
XY和XXY的混合体。
00:26
They have a mix of chromosome types
with X, with XY or with XXX.
with X, with XY or with XXX.
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00:33
If it's not just
about our chromosomes,
about our chromosomes,
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如果不只是与我们的染色体有关，
那么成为女人的要素究竟是什么？
00:35
then what is being a woman about?
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00:38
Being feminine?
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有女人味？
嫁人？
00:40
Getting married?
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生小孩？
00:41
Having kids?
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00:43
You don't have to look far
to find fantastic exceptions
to find fantastic exceptions
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你不需要花很大力气就可以找到
这些规则的例外，
00:47
to these rules,
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但我们都有让我们成为女人的东西。
00:48
but we all share something
that makes us women.
that makes us women.
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00:53
Maybe that something is in our brains.
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也许这点就在我们的大脑中。
00:57
You might have heard theories
from last century
from last century
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你也许听过上个世纪的理论，
男人的数学比女人要好，
01:00
about how men are better
at math than women
at math than women
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是因为他们的大脑尺寸更大。
01:03
because they have bigger brains.
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01:05
These theories have been debunked.
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这些理论背后的真相已经被揭穿，
普通人的脑袋比大象的脑袋
01:07
The average man has a brain
about three times smaller
about three times smaller
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要小三倍，
01:10
than the average elephant,
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但并不意味着
01:12
but that doesn't mean
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普通人比大象要笨上三倍…
01:13
the average man is three times
dumber than an elephant ...
dumber than an elephant ...
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或者，的确是这样吗？
01:16
or does it?
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（笑声）
01:17
(Laughter)
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有一波新的女性神经科学家
01:20
There's a new wave
of female neuroscientists
of female neuroscientists
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正在发现女性和男性的
大脑在神经元连接，
大脑在神经元连接，
01:25
that are finding important differences
between female and male brains
between female and male brains
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大脑结构，
01:29
in neuron connectivity,
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01:31
in brain structure, in brain activity.
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大脑活动方面的重要区别。
01:34
They're finding that the brain
is like a patchwork mosaic --
is like a patchwork mosaic --
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他们发现大脑就像拼接的马赛克——
是一个混合体。
01:38
a mixture.
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女性拥有大量的
女性模块和少量男性模块。
女性模块和少量男性模块。
01:40
Women have mostly female patches
and a few male patches.
and a few male patches.
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01:44
With all this new data,
what does it mean to be a woman?
what does it mean to be a woman?
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有所有这些新数据背后，
做女人到底意味着什么呢？
做女人到底意味着什么呢？
01:49
This is something that I've been
thinking about almost my entire life.
thinking about almost my entire life.
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这几乎是我毕生都在思考的事情。
01:53
When people learn that I'm a woman
who happens to be transgender,
who happens to be transgender,
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当人们知道我碰巧
是个跨性别者的女人时，
是个跨性别者的女人时，
他们总会问，
01:57
they always ask,
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“你怎么知道你是女人？”
01:59
"How do you know you're a woman?"
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02:02
As a scientist, I'm searching
for a biological basis of gender.
for a biological basis of gender.
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作为科学家，我致力于
寻找性别的生物学基础。
寻找性别的生物学基础。
我想要弄清楚是什么塑造了我。
02:07
I want to understand what makes me me.
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02:12
New discoveries
at the front edge of science
at the front edge of science
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前沿科学的新发现
给定义性别的生物标志带来曙光。
02:15
are shedding light
on the biomarkers that define gender.
on the biomarkers that define gender.
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我和我的同事在遗传学、神经科学、
生理学和心理学方面都有研究，
生理学和心理学方面都有研究，
02:19
My colleagues and I in genetics,
neuroscience, physiology and psychology,
neuroscience, physiology and psychology,
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我们试图弄清楚性别是如何起作用的。
02:26
we're trying to figure out
exactly how gender works.
exactly how gender works.
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这些截然不同的领域有共同的连接——
02:29
These vastly different fields
share a common connection --
share a common connection --
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实验胚胎学。
02:33
epigenetics.
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02:35
In epigenetics,
we're studying how DNA activity
we're studying how DNA activity
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在实验胚胎学中，我们在研究DNA活动
是如何发生根本和永久性变化的，
02:41
can actually radically
and permanently change,
and permanently change,
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即使序列保持不变。
02:44
even though the sequence stays the same.
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02:48
DNA is the long, string-like molecule
that winds up inside our cells.
that winds up inside our cells.
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DNA是一种缠绕在
我们细胞内的长链分子。
我们细胞内的长链分子。
DNA的数量十分庞大，
02:53
There's so much DNA
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以至于它实际上会形成
类似绳结的东西——
类似绳结的东西——
02:54
that it actually gets tangled
into these knot-like things --
into these knot-like things --
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我们就叫它们结吧。
02:57
we'll just call them knots.
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03:00
So external factors change
how those DNA knots are formed.
how those DNA knots are formed.
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外部因素改变了DNA结的形成。
03:06
You can think of it like this:
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你可以这样想：
在我们的细胞里，有各种各样的
精巧装置，它们可以制造东西，
精巧装置，它们可以制造东西，
03:08
inside our cells, there's different
contraptions building things,
contraptions building things,
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连接回路，
03:14
connecting circuits,
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做所有必要的事情来打造生命体。
03:15
doing all the things they need
to make life happen.
to make life happen.
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03:19
Here's one that's sort of reading
the DNA and making RNA.
the DNA and making RNA.
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这里展示的是读取DNA，
制造RNA的过程。
制造RNA的过程。
03:25
And then this one is carrying
a huge sac of neurotransmitters
a huge sac of neurotransmitters
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这个是携带着一个
巨大的神经递质囊
巨大的神经递质囊
从脑细胞的一端
03:29
from one end of the brain cell
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到另一端。
03:30
to the other.
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它们做这种工作
难道不会得到危险津贴吗？
难道不会得到危险津贴吗？
03:32
Don't they get hazard pay
for this kind of work?
for this kind of work?
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（笑声）
03:34
(Laughter)
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03:36
This one is an entire molecular factory --
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这是一个完整的分子工厂——
有人说这就是生命的密码。
03:38
some say it's the secret to life.
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它叫做核糖体。
03:40
It's call the ribosome.
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我从2001年起就在研究它。
03:42
I've been studying this since 2001.
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03:46
One of the stunning
things about our cells
things about our cells
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我们的细胞令人惊叹的一点是，
03:49
is that the components inside them
are actually biodegradable.
are actually biodegradable.
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细胞内的成分其实是可以生物降解的。
它们会分解，
03:53
They dissolve,
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然后每天都被重建，
03:55
and then they're rebuilt each day,
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有点像流动嘉年华，
03:57
kind of like a traveling carnival
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游乐设施每天都被拆除和重建。
03:59
where the rides are taken down
and then rebuilt every single day.
and then rebuilt every single day.
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04:04
A big difference between our cells
and the traveling carnival
and the traveling carnival
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我们的细胞和流动嘉年华最大的不同是
在嘉年华中，
04:08
is that in the carnival,
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每天有技术熟练的工匠
来重建这些游乐设施。
来重建这些游乐设施。
04:10
there are skilled craftsmen
that rebuild the rides each day.
that rebuild the rides each day.
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04:15
In our cells, there are
no such skilled craftsmen,
no such skilled craftsmen,
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在我们的细胞中，没有如此熟练的工匠，
只有傻呼呼的建设机器，
04:17
only dumb builder machines
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计划中写什么就建什么，
04:19
that build whatever's
written in the plans,
written in the plans,
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不管那个计划说的是什么。
04:21
no matter what those plans say.
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04:24
Those plans are the DNA.
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这些计划就是DNA。
细胞中对每个细节的指示。
04:27
The instructions for every
nook and cranny inside our cells.
nook and cranny inside our cells.
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04:32
If everything in, say,
our brain cells
our brain cells
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如果我们大脑中的细胞
几乎每天都在溶解，
04:35
dissolves almost every day,
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那么大脑如何记住超过一天的事情？
04:37
then how can the brain remember
anything past one day?
anything past one day?
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04:40
That's where DNA comes in.
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DNA在其中起到了关键的作用。
DNA是那些不会溶解的部分之一。
04:42
DNA is one of the those things
that does not dissolve.
that does not dissolve.
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但要让DNA记得发生的事情，
04:46
But for DNA to remember
that something happened,
that something happened,
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它得多少做点改变。
04:48
it has to change somehow.
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04:51
We know the change
can't be in the sequence;
can't be in the sequence;
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我们知道改变不能在序列中；
如果它一直在改变序列，
04:53
if it changed sequence all the time,
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那么我们可能每天就会长出
一只新的耳朵，或一个新的眼球。
一只新的耳朵，或一个新的眼球。
04:55
then we might be growing like, a new ear
or a new eyeball every single day.
or a new eyeball every single day.
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（笑声）
05:00
(Laughter)
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所以，它改变了形状，
05:01
So, instead it changes shape,
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形成了DNA结。
05:03
and that's where those DNA knots come in.
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你可以把它想成DNA记忆。
05:05
You can think of them like DNA memory.
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05:09
When something big
in our life happens,
in our life happens,
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当生活中发生大事的时候，
比如童年的创伤，
05:11
like a traumatic childhood event,
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应激激素就会充满大脑。
05:14
stress hormones flood our brain.
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05:16
The stress hormones
don't affect the sequence of DNA,
don't affect the sequence of DNA,
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应激激素不会影响DNA的序列，
但它们会改变形状。
05:19
but they do change the shape.
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它们通过指令分子机器
05:21
They affect that part of DNA
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减少压力的方式来影响DNA这一部分。
05:24
with the instructions for molecular
machines that reduce stress.
machines that reduce stress.
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05:28
That piece of DNA
gets wound up into a knot,
gets wound up into a knot,
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DNA片段被缠绕成一个结，
现在愚蠢的建造机器无法读取到用来
05:31
and now the dumb builder machines
can't read the plans they need
can't read the plans they need
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建造减轻压力的机器的计划。
05:35
to build the machines that reduce stress.
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05:38
That's a mouthful, but it's
what's happening on the microscale.
what's happening on the microscale.
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这听起来有点拗口，
但这就是在微观层面发生的事情。
但这就是在微观层面发生的事情。
05:41
On the macroscale, you practically lose
the ability to deal with stress,
the ability to deal with stress,
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从宏观层面上看，你似乎
失去了应对压力的能力，
失去了应对压力的能力，
这很糟糕。
05:44
and that's bad.
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这就是DNA记得
过去发生的事情的方式。
过去发生的事情的方式。
05:46
And that's how DNA can remember
what happens in the past.
what happens in the past.
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05:51
This is what I think
was happening to me
was happening to me
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我想这就是当我首次
开始我的性别转变时
开始我的性别转变时
发生在我身上的事情。
05:53
when I first started my gender transition.
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05:57
I knew I was a woman on the inside,
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我知道我内心是个女人，
外表以女装示人，
05:59
and I wore women's clothes on the outside,
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但每个人都把我看作
一个穿裙子的男人。
一个穿裙子的男人。
06:02
but everyone saw me as a man in a dress.
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06:07
I felt like no matter
how many things I try,
how many things I try,
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我感觉不管我做过多少尝试，
也没人会真正把我当作一个女人。
06:12
no one would ever
really see me as a woman.
really see me as a woman.
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在科学中，你的可信度决定一切。
06:14
In science, your credibility
is everything,
is everything,
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人们在走廊里窃笑，
06:17
and people were
snickering in the hallways,
snickering in the hallways,
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06:21
giving me stares,
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盯着我看，
露出厌恶的表情——
06:23
looks of disgust --
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害怕靠近我。
06:25
afraid to be near me.
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06:28
I remember my first big talk
after transition.
after transition.
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我还记得在性别转变后
进行的第一次大型演讲。
进行的第一次大型演讲。
那是在意大利。
06:31
It was in Italy.
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我以前做过口碑不错的演讲，
06:32
I'd given prestigious talks before,
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但这次，我害怕了。
06:34
but this one, I was terrified.
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我看着听众，
06:37
I looked out into the audience,
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然后窃窃私语开始了——
06:39
and the whispers started --
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还有陆续而来的凝视，
06:42
the stares,
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嘲笑，窃笑。
06:43
the smirks, the chuckles.
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06:46
To this day, I still have social anxiety
around my experience eight years ago.
around my experience eight years ago.
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直到今天，我仍然因8年前的
经历而怀有社交焦虑。
经历而怀有社交焦虑。
06:53
I lost hope.
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我失去了希望。
06:56
Don't worry,
I've had therapy so I'm OK --
I've had therapy so I'm OK --
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不要担心，我接受过治疗，
所以我的状态还不错——
所以我的状态还不错——
我现在很好。
06:59
I'm OK now.
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（笑声）
07:01
(Laughter)
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（欢呼）
07:02
(Cheers)
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（鼓掌）
07:04
(Applause)
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但我觉得已经够了：
07:08
But I felt enough is enough:
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我是个科学家，
07:10
I'm a scientist,
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我有天体物理学博士学位，
07:12
I have a doctorate in astrophysics,
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我在顶级期刊中
07:14
I've published in the top journals,
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与波粒相互作用，空间物理，
核酸生物化学相关的领域
核酸生物化学相关的领域
07:16
in wave-particle interactions,
space physics,
space physics,
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都发表过论文。
07:18
nucleic acid biochemistry.
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事实上，我接受过
弄清事情真相的训练，于是——
弄清事情真相的训练，于是——
07:20
I've actually been trained
to get to the bottom of things, so --
to get to the bottom of things, so --
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（笑声）
07:23
(Laughter)
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我上网了——
07:25
I went online --
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（鼓掌）
07:26
(Applause)
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07:31
So I went online, and I found
fascinating research papers.
fascinating research papers.
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于是我上网搜索，
发现了有趣的研究论文。
发现了有趣的研究论文。
我了解到这些DNA结并非总是坏事。
07:35
I learned that these DNA knot things
are not always bad.
are not always bad.
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事实上，打结和解结——
07:38
Actually, the knotting and unknotting --
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有点像复杂的电脑语言，
07:40
it's like a complicated computer language.
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它精确地控制着我们的身体。
07:43
It programs our bodies
with exquisite precision.
with exquisite precision.
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07:47
So when we get pregnant,
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当我们怀孕时，
我们的受精卵可以成长为新生儿。
07:49
our fertilized eggs grow
into newborn babies.
into newborn babies.
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07:53
This process requires
thousands of DNA decisions to happen.
thousands of DNA decisions to happen.
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这个过程由成千上万个DNA决定。
胚胎细胞应该变成血细胞吗？
07:57
Should an embryo cell become a blood cell?
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还是心脏细胞，或者大脑细胞？
08:00
A heart cell? A brain cell?
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08:02
And the decisions happen
at different times during pregnancy.
at different times during pregnancy.
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这些决定发生在怀孕的不同阶段。
有些发生在早期妊娠阶段，
有些发生在中期妊娠，
有些发生在中期妊娠，
08:06
Some in the first trimester,
some in the second trimester
some in the second trimester
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有些则发生在晚期。
08:09
and some in the third trimester.
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08:14
To truly understand
DNA decision-making,
DNA decision-making,
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为了真正搞清楚DNA决策原理，
我们需要在原子水平观察结的形成。
08:17
we need to see the process
of knot formation in atomic detail.
of knot formation in atomic detail.
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08:21
Even the most powerful
microscopes can't see this.
microscopes can't see this.
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即便是最强大的显微镜
也看不见这个过程。
也看不见这个过程。
08:26
What if we tried
to simulate these on a computer?
to simulate these on a computer?
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如果我们试着在计算机上进行模拟呢？
08:29
For that we'd need
a million computers to do that.
a million computers to do that.
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这样一来，我们就需要
上百万台计算机。
上百万台计算机。
08:34
That's exactly what we have
at Los Alamos Labs --
at Los Alamos Labs --
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这正是我们在洛斯阿拉莫斯
实验室所拥有的——
实验室所拥有的——
上百万台计算机彼此连接，
并储存在一个巨大的仓库里。
并储存在一个巨大的仓库里。
08:37
a million computers
connected in a giant warehouse.
connected in a giant warehouse.
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08:42
So here we're showing the DNA
making up an entire gene
making up an entire gene
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这里我们展示的是组成
整个基因的DNA
整个基因的DNA
折叠成了形状非常特殊的结。
08:46
folded into very specific shapes of knots.
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08:50
For the first time,
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这是我的团队
在史上首次成功模拟了
整个DNA基因——
整个DNA基因——
08:51
my team has simulated
an entire gene of DNA --
an entire gene of DNA --
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这是迄今为止最大规模的
生物分子模拟。
生物分子模拟。
08:55
the largest biomolecular simulation
performed to date.
performed to date.
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09:00
For the first time, we're beginning
to understand the unsolved problem
to understand the unsolved problem
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这是我们第一次开始揭开激素
如何引发这些结的形成这一谜团。
09:03
of how hormones trigger
the formation of these knots.
the formation of these knots.
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09:09
DNA knot formation
can be seen beautifully in calico cats.
can be seen beautifully in calico cats.
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漂亮的DNA结信息可以
在花斑猫上看到。
在花斑猫上看到。
在橙色和黑色之间的选择
09:14
The decision between orange and black
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发生在怀孕早期，
09:16
happens early on in the womb,
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09:19
so that orange-and-black patchy pattern,
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所以这个橙黑相间的斑片状图案，
准确地描述了这只猫在
09:21
it's an exact readout of what happened
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母猫子宫里还是
09:24
when that cat was
just a tiny little kitten embryo
just a tiny little kitten embryo
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小猫胚胎时的情况。
09:26
inside her mom's womb.
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09:28
And the patchy pattern actually happens
in our brains and in cancer.
in our brains and in cancer.
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这种斑块的模式实际上还发生
在我们的大脑和癌症中。
在我们的大脑和癌症中。
它与智力障碍和乳腺癌直接相关。
09:34
It's directly related to intellectual
disability and breast cancer.
disability and breast cancer.
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09:39
These DNA decisions
also happen in other parts of the body.
also happen in other parts of the body.
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这些DNA决策也发生在
身体的其他部分。
身体的其他部分。
事实证明，生殖器前体
会在早期妊娠阶段
会在早期妊娠阶段
09:44
It turns out that the precursor genitals
transform into either female or male
transform into either female or male
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向男性或女性转变。
09:49
during the first trimester of pregnancy.
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09:51
The precursor brains, on the other hand,
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另一方面，前体大脑细胞
会在中期妊娠阶段转变成不同性别。
09:54
transform into female or male
during the second trimester of pregnancy.
during the second trimester of pregnancy.
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09:58
So the current working model
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所以目前的工作模式是，
我母亲子宫里的一个独特的组合
10:00
is that a unique mix in my mom's womb
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导致了生殖器前体以一种方式转变，
10:04
caused the precursor genitals
to transform one way,
to transform one way,
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但大脑前体以另一种方式转变。
10:08
but the precursor brain
to transform the other way.
to transform the other way.
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10:15
Most of epigenetic research
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大多数的表现遗传研究
专注于压力，焦虑，抑郁——
10:17
has really focused
on stress, anxiety, depression --
on stress, anxiety, depression --
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有点令人沮丧，
10:20
kind of a downer,
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有点糟糕。
10:21
kind of bad things.
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（笑声）
10:23
(Laughter)
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但如今——
10:24
But nowadays --
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最新的情况——
10:25
the latest stuff --
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人们在寻找放松。
10:27
people are looking at relaxation.
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这会对你的DNA产生积极的影响吗？
10:28
Can that have a positive
effect on your DNA?
effect on your DNA?
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10:32
Right now we're missing
key data from mice models.
key data from mice models.
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现在我们缺少来自
老鼠模型的关键数据。
老鼠模型的关键数据。
10:36
We know that mice relax,
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我们知道老鼠会放松，
但他们能像喇嘛那样冥想吗？
10:38
but could they meditate
like the Dalai Lama?
like the Dalai Lama?
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能够有所顿悟吗？
10:42
Achieve enlightenment?
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它们能像绝地大师尤达
那样用意念搬动石头吗？
那样用意念搬动石头吗？
10:43
Could they move stones with their mind
like Jedi Master Yoda?
like Jedi Master Yoda?
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（模仿尤达的声音）：绝地老鼠
必须能感到原力的流动。
必须能感到原力的流动。
10:47
(Yoda voice): Hm, a Jedi mouse
must feel the force flow, hm.
must feel the force flow, hm.
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（笑声）
10:51
(Laughter)
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（鼓掌）
10:53
(Applause)
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10:57
I wonder if the support I've had
since that talk back in Italy
since that talk back in Italy
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我想知道，自从那次在意大利的
演讲之后，我得到的支持
演讲之后，我得到的支持
是否曾试图解开我的DNA之谜。
11:01
has tried to unwind my DNA.
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11:04
Having a great circle of friends,
supportive parents
supportive parents
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有一个很好的朋友圈，支持我的父母，
以及拥有一个亲密的关系，
11:07
and being in a loving relationship
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实际上给了我力量和希望去帮助别人。
11:09
has actually given me strength
and hope to help others.
and hope to help others.
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11:13
At work I wear a rainbow bracelet.
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上班时我戴着彩虹手镯。
有时它会令人侧目，
但也会提高人们的意识。
但也会提高人们的意识。
11:16
Sometimes it raises eyebrows,
but it also raises awareness.
but it also raises awareness.
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11:20
There's so many transgender people --
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有如此多的跨性别人群——
尤其是有色人种中的女性——
11:22
especially women of color --
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仅仅是一个负面评论
就可能导致她们自杀。
就可能导致她们自杀。
11:24
that are just one demeaning comment
away from taking their own lives.
away from taking their own lives.
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11:31
Forty percent of us attempt suicide.
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有40%我们这样的人会尝试自杀。
11:35
If you're listening and you feel
like you have no other option,
like you have no other option,
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如果你在听，而且你觉得没有其他选择，
试着打电话给一个朋友，
11:40
try to call a friend,
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去上网或试着加入互助小组。
11:42
go online or try to get
in a support group.
in a support group.
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11:45
If you're a woman who's not transgender
but you know pain of isolation,
but you know pain of isolation,
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如果你不是个跨性别的女性，
但你懂得被孤立或者
但你懂得被孤立或者
遭受性骚扰的痛苦——
11:50
of sexual assault --
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记得向他人寻求帮助。
11:52
reach out.
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11:56
So what does it mean to be a woman?
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那么，做女人意味着什么？
12:00
The latest research is showing
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最新的研究显示
12:02
that female and male brains
do develop differently in the womb,
do develop differently in the womb,
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女人和男人的大脑
在子宫中的发育是不一样的，
在子宫中的发育是不一样的，
可能给了我们女人天生的女人意识。
12:06
possibly giving us females
this innate sense of being a woman.
this innate sense of being a woman.
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12:11
On the other hand,
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另一方面，
也许是我们对共性的
意识让我们成为女人。
意识让我们成为女人。
12:12
maybe it's our shared sense
of commonality that makes us women.
of commonality that makes us women.
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12:18
We come in so many different
shapes and sizes
shapes and sizes
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我们生来具有各种不同的体型和身高，
问作为女人意味着什么
这样的问题可能并不恰当。
这样的问题可能并不恰当。
12:20
that asking what it means to be a woman
may not be the right question.
may not be the right question.
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就像问花斑猫为什么是花斑猫一样。
12:24
It's like asking a calico cat
what it means to be a calico cat.
what it means to be a calico cat.
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12:29
Maybe becoming a woman
means accepting ourselves
means accepting ourselves
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也许作为女人意味着接受
我们到底是谁，
12:34
for who we really are
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并承认彼此的共同之处。
12:36
and acknowledging the same in each other.
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12:39
I see you.
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我看到你了。
你也看到了我。
12:41
And you've just seen me.
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12:44
(Applause and cheers)
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（鼓掌和欢呼）
Translated by psjmz mz
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Karissa Sanbonmatsu - Structural biologistKarissa Sanbonmatsu investigates how DNA allows cells in our body to remember events that take place.
Why you should listen
Dr. Karissa Sanbonmatsu is a principal investigator at Los Alamos National Laboratory and the New Mexico Consortium, funded by the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation.
As a principal investigator, Sanbonmatsu has advanced our understanding of the mechanism of the ribosome, antibiotics and riboswitches. She published some of the first structural studies of epigenetic long non-coding RNAs and is currently studying the mechanism of epigenetic effects involving chromatin architecture. She uses a combination of wetlab biochemistry, supercomputers and cryogenic electron microscopy to investigate mechanism in atomistic detail. She is on the board of Equality New Mexico and the Gender Identity Center and is an advocate for LGBT people in the sciences.
Karissa Sanbonmatsu | Speaker | TED.com