ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Carolyn Bertozzi - Chemical biologist
Professor Carolyn Bertozzi is a chemical biologist who invents technologies and medicines based on disease-causing sugar molecules.

Why you should listen

Professor Carolyn Bertozzi's research interests span the disciplines of chemistry and biology with an emphasis on studies of cell surface sugars important to human health and disease. She was originally trained in organic chemistry and immunology, and today her research group works at the interface of these two disciplines They recently made discoveries that link particular sugars that coat the surfaces of cancer cells with the ability of those disease-causing cells to avoid elimination by the human immune system.  Now her research group is developing medicines that attack cancer cell-surface sugars so as to render the immune system more potent at eliminating disease. Bertozzi also studies other human health problems including tuberculosis infections and rare genetic disorders, using tools from chemistry to power biomedical research.

More profile about the speaker
Carolyn Bertozzi | Speaker | TED.com
TEDxStanford

Carolyn Bertozzi: What the sugar coating on your cells is trying to tell you

卡罗琳·贝尔托齐: 你细胞表层上的糖被想要告诉你什么

Filmed:
1,527,740 views

你的细胞被储存着信息并讲述一种秘密语言的糖蛋白包裹。它们想要告诉我们什么?你的血型——还有,你是否可能患上癌症。化学生物学家卡罗琳·贝尔托齐研究了癌细胞上的糖蛋白是如何与你的免疫细胞互动的。了解更多关于你的身体如何检测癌症以及最新的抗癌药物是如何帮助你的免疫系统击败疾病的。
- Chemical biologist
Professor Carolyn Bertozzi is a chemical biologist who invents technologies and medicines based on disease-causing sugar molecules. Full bio

Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.

00:12
This is a talk about sugar and cancer癌症.
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这是一个关于糖和癌症的演讲,
00:15
I became成为 interested有兴趣 in sugar
when I was in college学院.
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我是在上大学的时候
开始对糖感兴趣的。
我说的不是这种糖,
00:19
Not this kind of sugar.
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我说的是生物学教授教我们的
00:21
It was the sugar that our biology生物学
professors教授 taught us about
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包裹在你细胞上的那种糖。
00:26
in the context上下文 of the coating涂层
of your cells细胞.
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00:30
Maybe you didn't know that your cells细胞
are coated with sugar.
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可能你不知道你的细胞
被糖蛋白包裹着。
我之前也不知道,
00:34
And I didn't know that, either,
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直到上大学的时候上了这些课,
00:36
until直到 I took these courses培训班 in college学院,
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但在当时——
00:38
but back then --
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那是在,我们就说
1980年代吧——
00:40
and this was in, let's just
call it the 1980s --
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00:44
people didn't know much about why
our cells细胞 are coated with sugar.
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人们对于为什么细胞被
糖蛋白包裹所知甚少。
当我翻遍笔记本时,
注意到我曾经写下
00:48
And when I dug through通过 my notes笔记,
what I noticed注意到 I had written书面 down
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我们细胞上的糖蛋白就像是
00:52
is that the sugar coating涂层 on our cells细胞
is like the sugar coating涂层
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花生巧克力上的糖衣。
00:57
on a peanut花生 M&amp功放;M.
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00:59
And people thought
the sugar coating涂层 on our cells细胞
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而人们曾以为
我们细胞上的糖蛋白
就像是一个保护层,
01:02
was like a protective保护的 coating涂层
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在某种程度上使细胞
更强大或者坚韧。
01:04
that somehow不知何故 made制作 our cells细胞
stronger or tougher强硬.
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01:08
But we now know, many许多 decades几十年 later后来,
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但是几十年后的今天,我们知道
实际情况要复杂得多,
01:11
that it's much more complicated复杂 than that,
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01:13
and that the sugars on our cells细胞
are actually其实 very complex复杂.
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我们细胞上的糖蛋白
实际上非常复杂。
01:19
And if you could shrink收缩 yourself你自己 down
to a little miniature微型 airplane飞机
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如果你能将自己缩小
塞进一个微型飞机,
然后沿着你的细胞表层飞行
01:24
and fly right along沿
the surface表面 of your cells细胞,
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就可能看到类似这样的景像——
01:28
it might威力 look something like this --
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有着地理特征。
01:30
with geographical地理 features特征.
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复杂的糖蛋白就是
里面的树林和树灌木——
01:33
And now, the complex复杂 sugars
are these trees树木 and bushes灌木丛 --
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垂柳在风中摇摆,
01:37
weeping willows杨柳 that are
swaying摇曳 in the wind
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随波而动。
01:39
and moving移动 with the waves波浪.
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当我开始思考
这些复杂的糖蛋白
01:41
And when I started开始 thinking思维 about
all these complex复杂 sugars
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就像是我们细胞上的植物时,
01:45
that are like this foliage叶子 on our cells细胞,
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它成为了作为一个
生物学家和化学家的我
01:48
it became成为 one of the most interesting有趣
problems问题 that I encountered遇到
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所遇到的最有趣的问题之一。
01:51
as a biologist生物学家 and also as a chemist化学家.
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01:55
And so now we tend趋向
to think about the sugars
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现在我们都倾向于将这些
占据我们细胞表层的糖蛋白
01:58
that are populating填充
the surface表面 of our cells细胞
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看成一种语言。
02:01
as a language语言.
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02:04
They have a lot of information信息
stored存储 in their complex复杂 structures结构.
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有许多的信息都存储在
它们复杂的结构中
02:09
But what are they trying to tell us?
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但是它们想要告诉我们什么呢?
02:12
I can tell you that we do know
some information信息
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我可以告诉你我们的确知道
一些来自这些糖蛋白中的信息,
02:15
that comes from these sugars,
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结果发现这些信息
02:17
and it's turned转身 out already已经
to be incredibly令人难以置信 important重要
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对医学领域非常重要。
02:20
in the world世界 of medicine医学.
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02:22
For example, one thing
your sugars are telling告诉 us
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例如,你细胞上的糖蛋白可以揭示
你们的血型。
02:26
is your blood血液 type类型.
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02:29
So your blood血液 cells细胞, your red blood血液
cells细胞, are coated with sugars,
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你的血细胞,红血细胞
都被糖蛋白包裹着,
而这些糖蛋白的化学结构
决定了你的血型。
02:33
and the chemical化学 structures结构 of those
sugars determine确定 your blood血液 type类型.
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例如,我知道我的血型是O型,
02:37
So for example, I know
that I am blood血液 type类型 O.
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在座的有多少人是O型血的?
02:41
How many许多 people are also blood血液 type类型 O?
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请举起你们的手。
02:45
Put your hands up.
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这是一个很常见的血型。
02:46
It's a pretty漂亮 common共同 one,
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今天举手的不多,
要么你们没有注意听我说,
02:47
so when so few少数 hands go up,
either you're not paying付款 attention注意
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要么你们有些人不知道
自己的血型,这都不太好。
02:50
or you don't know your blood血液 type类型,
and both of those are bad.
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(观众笑声)
02:53
(Laughter笑声)
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但是对于这些跟我一样
是O型血的人来说,
02:54
But for those of you who share分享
the blood血液 type类型 O with me,
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就意味着在我们血细胞的表层
02:57
what this means手段 is that we have
this chemical化学 structure结构体
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都有着这样的化学结构:
02:59
on the surface表面 of our blood血液 cells细胞:
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三个单糖连在一起
组成一个更复杂的糖。
03:02
three simple简单 sugars linked关联 together一起
to make a more complex复杂 sugar.
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按照定义,这就是O型血。
03:06
And that, by definition定义, is blood血液 type类型 O.
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03:09
Now, how many许多 people are blood血液 type类型 A?
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有多少人是A型血的?
03:12
Right here.
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这里有。
那意味着在你的细胞上有一种酶,
03:13
That means手段 you have
an enzyme in your cells细胞
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又增加了一个成分,
03:16
that adds增加 one more building建造 block,
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就是那个红色的单糖,
03:19
that red sugar,
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形成了一个更加复杂的结构。
03:20
to build建立 a more complex复杂 structure结构体.
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03:23
And how many许多 people are blood血液 type类型 B?
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那么B型血的又有多少人呢?
03:26
Quite相当 a few少数.
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还不少。
你有一种与A型血的人略有不同的酶,
03:27
You have a slightly different不同 enzyme
than the A people,
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所以在细胞表面会
形成一种稍有不同的结构。
03:30
so you build建立 a slightly
different不同 structure结构体,
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而那些AB型血的人,
03:32
and those of you that are ABAB
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从父母双方那里
同时获得了这两种酶,
03:34
have the enzyme from your mother母亲,
the other enzyme from your father父亲,
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形成两种结构,它们大约各占一半。
03:37
and now you make both of these structures结构
in roughly大致 equal等于 proportions比例.
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03:41
And when this was figured想通 out,
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当这一点被发现以后——
也就是上个世纪的事——
03:43
which哪一个 is now back in the previous以前 century世纪,
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这开启了世界上最重要的医疗手段之一,
03:46
this enabled启用 one of the most important重要
medical procedures程序 in the world世界,
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那当然就是输血。
03:50
which哪一个, of course课程,
is the blood血液 transfusion.
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通过知道你的血型,
03:52
And by knowing会心 what your blood血液 type类型 is,
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我们可以在你需要输血的时候
03:54
we can make sure,
if you ever need a transfusion,
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确保献血者跟你是同样的血型。
03:57
that your donor捐赠者 has the same相同 blood血液 type类型,
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这样你的身体里就不会
出现不同的糖蛋白,
03:59
so that your body身体
doesn't see foreign国外 sugars,
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04:03
which哪一个 it wouldn't不会 like
and would certainly当然 reject拒绝.
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也就不会产生排斥。
04:08
What else其他 are the sugars on the surface表面
of your cells细胞 trying to tell us?
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你细胞表层上的糖蛋白
还能告诉我们什么呢?
04:13
Well, those sugars might威力 be telling告诉 us
that you have cancer癌症.
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这些糖蛋白还可能告诉我们
你是否得了癌症。
04:18
So a few少数 decades几十年 ago,
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数十年前,
对肿瘤组织进行分析的关系性
统计数据开始出现。
04:20
correlations相关 began开始 to emerge出现
from the analysis分析 of tumor tissue组织.
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典型的情况是这样的:
一个病人身上被检测出肿瘤,
04:26
And the typical典型 scenario脚本 is a patient患者
would have a tumor detected检测,
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然后从有肿瘤的组织上取得切片,
04:30
and the tissue组织 would be removed去除
in a biopsy活检 procedure程序
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送到病理实验室,
04:34
and then sent发送 down to a pathology病理 lab实验室
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在那里对这个组织上的
化学变化进行分析,
04:37
where that tissue组织 would be analyzed分析
to look for chemical化学 changes变化
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以便告知肿瘤医师最好的治疗方案。
04:41
that might威力 inform通知 the oncologist肿瘤科医生
about the best最好 course课程 of treatment治疗.
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04:46
And what was discovered发现
from studies学习 like that
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而人们从那样的研究中所发现的是,
当细胞由健康转向病态时,
04:49
is that the sugars have changed
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它表层上的糖蛋白发生了变化。
04:52
when the cell细胞 transforms变换
from being存在 healthy健康 to being存在 sick生病.
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04:58
And those correlations相关 have come up
again and again and again.
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这些分析关系性
一次又一次的被提出来。
但是在这个领域有一个
大的问题,那就是:为什么?
05:04
But a big question in the field领域
has been: Why?
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05:08
Why do cancers癌症 have different不同 sugars?
What's the importance重要性 of that?
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为什么癌变的细胞有不同的糖蛋白?
它的重要性是什么?
为什么它会发生,
如果结果证明它跟病变过程
05:13
Why does it happen发生, and what
can we do about it if it does turn out
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有关联,那么我们又能做些什么?
05:16
to be related有关 to the disease疾病 process处理?
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05:21
So, one of the changes变化 that we study研究
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我们研究的这些变化之一
是某种特定糖蛋白
密度的增加,
05:25
is an increase增加 in the density密度
of a particular特定 sugar
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这种糖蛋白叫做唾液酸。
05:30
that's called sialic唾液酸 acid.
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05:33
And I think this is going to be
one of the most important重要 sugars
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我觉得它将成为我们这个时代
最重要的糖蛋白之一,
05:37
of our times,
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所以我会鼓励大家去熟悉这个词语。
05:38
so I would encourage鼓励 everybody每个人
to get familiar with this word.
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05:43
Sialic唾液 acid is not
the kind of sugar that we eat.
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唾液酸不是那种
我们用来吃的糖,
它们是不同的糖。
05:46
Those are different不同 sugars.
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这是一种在可以在你身体的
05:48
This is a kind of sugar
that is actually其实 found发现
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每一个细胞上都能找到的糖蛋白。
05:51
at certain某些 levels水平 on all
of the cells细胞 in your body身体.
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实际上它在你的细胞上中很常见。
05:54
It's actually其实 quite相当 common共同 on your cells细胞.
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05:58
But for some reason原因,
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但出于某种原因,
06:00
cancer癌症 cells细胞, at least最小 in a successful成功,
progressive进步 disease疾病,
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癌细胞,至少在一场成功的
进行性的病变中
常常比正常、健康的细胞
06:05
tend趋向 to have more sialic唾液酸 acid
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含有更多的唾液酸。
06:09
than a normal正常, healthy健康 cell细胞 would have.
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06:11
And why?
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为什么?
06:12
What does that mean?
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这意味着什么?
06:15
Well, what we've我们已经 learned学到了
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我们所了解到,
06:16
is that it has to do
with your immune免疫的 system系统.
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这与你的免疫系统有关。
06:20
So let me tell you a little bit
about the importance重要性 of your immune免疫的 system系统
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让我给你们再讲一点关于
免疫系统在对抗癌症中的
重要性。
06:24
in cancer癌症.
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06:25
And this is something that's, I think,
in the news新闻 a lot these days.
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我想,这也是目前
在新闻中经常出现的内容。
人们正在开始熟悉
06:29
You know, people are starting开始
to become成为 familiar with the term术语
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“癌症免疫疗法”这个术语。
06:32
"cancer癌症 immune免疫的 therapy治疗."
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你们当中有人可能甚至认识
06:34
And some of you might威力 even know people
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一些从这些非常新的癌症治疗
手段中受益的人。
06:36
who are benefiting受益 from these very new
ways方法 of treating治疗 cancer癌症.
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06:41
What we now know
is that your immune免疫的 cells细胞,
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我们现在知道是你的免疫细胞,
也就是在血流中穿梭的白血细胞
06:45
which哪一个 are the white白色 blood血液 cells细胞
coursing窃喜 through通过 your bloodstream血液,
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在保护我们在日常中免受伤害——
06:49
protect保护 you on a daily日常 basis基础
from things gone走了 bad --
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06:53
including包含 cancer癌症.
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包括癌症。
06:55
And so in this picture图片,
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在这张图中,
这些绿色的小球
是你的免疫细胞,
06:57
those little green绿色 balls
are your immune免疫的 cells细胞,
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粉红色的大球
是一个癌症细胞。
07:00
and that big pink cell细胞 is a cancer癌症 cell细胞.
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07:04
And these immune免疫的 cells细胞 go around
and taste味道 all the cells细胞 in your body身体.
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这些免疫细胞会四处活动,
尝遍你身上的所有细胞,
07:09
That's their job工作.
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那是它们的工作。
07:10
And most of the time, the cells细胞 taste味道 OK.
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而大多数时间,
这些细胞尝起来都没有问题,
但偶尔会有一个细胞
尝起来不正常。
07:13
But once一旦 in a while,
a cell细胞 might威力 taste味道 bad.
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07:16
Hopefully希望, that's the cancer癌症 cell细胞,
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希望那就是癌症细胞,
当这些免疫细胞
尝到不正常的细胞时,
07:18
and when those immune免疫的 cells细胞
get the bad taste味道,
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它们会全力攻击消灭这些细胞。
07:20
they launch发射 an all-out全力以赴 strike罢工
and kill those cells细胞.
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07:24
So we know that.
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我们知道这一点。
我们还知道如果
你能强化这种品尝,
07:25
We also know that if you can
potentiate使可能 that tasting品尝,
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如果你能鼓励这些免疫细胞
07:30
if you can encourage鼓励 those immune免疫的 cells细胞
to actually其实 take a big old bite
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去大力吞噬一个癌细胞,
07:34
out of a cancer癌症 cell细胞,
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你就可以更好的保护自己
免受癌症的侵扰,
07:35
you get a better job工作 protecting保护
yourself你自己 from cancer癌症 every一切 day
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甚至还有可能治愈癌症。
07:38
and maybe even curing养护 a cancer癌症.
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07:41
And there are now a couple一对 of drugs毒品
out there in the market市场
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现在市场上有一些
治疗癌症的药,
07:44
that are used to treat对待 cancer癌症 patients耐心
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正是通过这个过程起作用的。
07:46
that act法案 exactly究竟 by this process处理.
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07:49
They activate启用 the immune免疫的 system系统
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它们能够激活免疫系统,
使免疫系统在保护我们不受癌症侵扰时
07:51
so that the immune免疫的 system系统
can be more vigorous蓬勃
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更加的有活力。
07:54
in protecting保护 us from cancer癌症.
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07:55
In fact事实, one of those drugs毒品
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事实上,这些药物中的一种
可能已经延长了前总统
吉米·卡特的生命。
07:57
may可能 well have spared幸免
President主席 Jimmy吉米 Carter's卡特的 life.
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08:01
Do you remember记得, President主席 Carter卡特
had malignant恶性 melanoma黑色素瘤
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你们记得吗,卡特总统
患有恶性黑色素瘤,
并且癌细胞转移到了脑部
08:06
that had metastasized转移 to his brain,
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而那种诊断通常还伴有
08:08
and that diagnosis诊断 is one
that is usually平时 accompanied伴随着 by numbers数字
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“只剩下几个月了”这样的描述。
08:12
like "months个月 to live生活."
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08:15
But he was treated治疗 with one
of these new immune-stimulating免疫刺激 drugs毒品,
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但是他使用了一种
免疫刺激类的药物,
现在他的癌症出现了好转,
08:19
and now his melanoma黑色素瘤
appears出现 to be in remission缓解,
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08:22
which哪一个 is remarkable卓越,
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跟几年前情况相比
08:24
considering考虑 the situation情况
only a few少数 years年份 ago.
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这是非常了不起的。
正因为这样非凡的进步,
08:28
In fact事实, it's so remarkable卓越
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08:29
that provocative挑衅 statements声明 like this one:
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所以出现了一些豪言壮志:
“有了这些新的免疫疗法药物,
08:32
"Cancer癌症 is having a penicillin青霉素 moment时刻,"
people are saying,
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癌症正在被消灭。”
08:36
with these new immune免疫的 therapy治疗 drugs毒品.
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我的意思是,对于一个我们已经与之
08:38
I mean, that's an incredibly令人难以置信 bold胆大 thing
to say about a disease疾病
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斗争了很长时间,
并以失败居多的疾病而言
08:41
which哪一个 we've我们已经 been fighting战斗 for a long time
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说出这样的话是一件很有勇气的事。
08:44
and mostly大多 losing失去 the battle战斗 with.
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08:46
So this is very exciting扣人心弦.
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这是非常令人激动的。
08:48
Now what does this have to do with sugars?
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那么这又跟糖蛋白有什么关系呢?
下面我就会告诉你们我们的发现。
08:51
Well, I'll tell you what we've我们已经 learned学到了.
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08:54
When an immune免疫的 cell细胞 snuggles挨近
up against反对 a cancer癌症 cell细胞 to take a taste味道,
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当一个免疫细胞裹住
一个癌细胞去尝它时,
它是在寻找疾病的信号,
09:01
it's looking for signs迹象 of disease疾病,
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09:03
and if it finds认定 those signs迹象,
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如果它发现了这些信号,
那么它就会被激活,
并发起猛烈的攻击去消灭癌细胞。
09:05
the cell细胞 gets得到 activated活性 and it launches发布会
a missile导弹 strike罢工 and kills杀死 the cell细胞.
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09:11
But if that cancer癌症 cell细胞 has a dense稠密 forest森林
of that sugar, sialic唾液酸 acid,
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但是如果癌细胞拥有丰富的
那种糖蛋白,唾液酸,
09:17
well, it starts启动 to taste味道 pretty漂亮 good.
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那么它会尝起来很好。
09:21
And there's a protein蛋白 on immune免疫的 cells细胞
that grabs争夺 the sialic唾液酸 acid,
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免疫细胞中有一种蛋白质
可以抓取唾液酸,
如果这种蛋白质被困在
09:26
and if that protein蛋白
gets得到 held保持 at that synapse突触
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免疫细胞和癌细胞之间的突触中,
09:30
between之间 the immune免疫的 cell细胞
and the cancer癌症 cell细胞,
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09:33
it puts看跌期权 that immune免疫的 cell细胞 to sleep睡觉.
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就会使得免疫细胞进入休眠状态。
09:35
The sialic唾液酸 acids are telling告诉
the immune免疫的 cell细胞,
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唾液酸在告诉免疫细胞,
“这个细胞没问题,
这里没有什么,继续往前走,
09:39
"Hey, this cell's细胞 all right.
Nothing to see here, move移动 along沿.
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去其它地方看看吧。”
09:42
Look somewhere某处 else其他."
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09:44
So in other words,
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换句话说,
只要我们的细胞被一层
厚厚的唾液酸包裹着,
09:45
as long as our cells细胞 are wearing穿着
a thick coat涂层 of sialic唾液酸 acid,
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09:51
they look fabulous极好, right?
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它们看起来就是极好的,对吧?
09:54
It's amazing惊人.
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真的很神奇。
09:56
And what if you could strip跳闸 off that coat涂层
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如果你能剥开这层外衣,
除去那些糖蛋白会怎么样?
09:59
and take that sugar away?
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那么你的免疫系统
10:02
Well, your immune免疫的 system系统
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也许会看到癌细胞的真面目:
10:05
might威力 be able能够 to see that cancer癌症 cell细胞
for what it really is:
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这是一些需要被消灭的家伙。
10:09
something that needs需求 to be destroyed销毁.
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10:12
And so this is what we're doing in my lab实验室.
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而这也是我们正在实验室里
所进行的研究。
10:15
We're developing发展 new medicines药品
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我们正在研发新药,
相当于是细胞表层的割草机——
10:18
that are basically基本上
cell-surface细胞表面 lawnmowers剪草机 --
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10:21
molecules分子 that go down
to the surface表面 of these cancer癌症 cells细胞
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让药物微粒进入癌细胞表层,
除去这些唾液酸,
10:25
and just cut off those sialic唾液酸 acids,
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这样就能让免疫系统
发挥全部潜能,
10:28
so that the immune免疫的 system系统
can reach达到 its full充分 potential潜在
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消灭我们体内的癌细胞。
10:32
in eliminating消除 those cancer癌症
cells细胞 from our body身体.
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10:36
So in closing关闭,
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最后,
让我再提醒你们一次:
10:39
let me just remind提醒 you again:
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你的细胞被糖蛋白包裹着。
10:41
your cells细胞 are coated with sugars.
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10:44
The sugars are telling告诉 cells细胞
around that cell细胞
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这些糖蛋白可以告诉
这个细胞周围的其它细胞
这个细胞是好还是坏。
10:49
whether是否 the cell细胞 is good or bad.
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10:52
And that's important重要,
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而这是非常重要的,
因为我们需要免疫系统
不要去打扰正常的细胞,
10:53
because our immune免疫的 system系统 needs需求
to leave离开 the good cells细胞 alone单独.
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否则我们就会患上
自身免疫系统疾病。
10:56
Otherwise除此以外, we'd星期三 have autoimmune自身免疫性 diseases疾病.
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11:00
But once一旦 in a while,
cancers癌症 get the ability能力
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但是有时癌症会获得
表达这些新糖蛋白的能力,
11:03
to express表现 these new sugars.
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我们现在知道
11:05
And now that we understand理解
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这些糖蛋白是如何记住免疫系统的,
11:06
how those sugars mesmerize催眠
the immune免疫的 system系统,
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可以由此研发出新药
去唤醒这些免疫细胞,
11:09
we can come up with new medicines药品
to wake唤醒 up those immune免疫的 cells细胞,
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告诉它们,“别管这些糖蛋白,
吞掉这些癌细胞,
11:13
tell them, "Ignore忽视
the sugars, eat the cell细胞
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享受这些可口的小吃。”
11:17
and have a delicious美味的 snack小吃, on cancer癌症."
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11:20
Thank you.
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谢谢。
(观众掌声)
11:22
(Applause掌声)
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Translated by chunhua zhang
Reviewed by Chen Zou

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ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Carolyn Bertozzi - Chemical biologist
Professor Carolyn Bertozzi is a chemical biologist who invents technologies and medicines based on disease-causing sugar molecules.

Why you should listen

Professor Carolyn Bertozzi's research interests span the disciplines of chemistry and biology with an emphasis on studies of cell surface sugars important to human health and disease. She was originally trained in organic chemistry and immunology, and today her research group works at the interface of these two disciplines They recently made discoveries that link particular sugars that coat the surfaces of cancer cells with the ability of those disease-causing cells to avoid elimination by the human immune system.  Now her research group is developing medicines that attack cancer cell-surface sugars so as to render the immune system more potent at eliminating disease. Bertozzi also studies other human health problems including tuberculosis infections and rare genetic disorders, using tools from chemistry to power biomedical research.

More profile about the speaker
Carolyn Bertozzi | Speaker | TED.com