TED2018
Floyd E. Romesberg: The radical possibilities of man-made DNA
佛洛伊德 E. 罗姆斯柏格: 人造 DNA 的可能性
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历史上所有的活细胞都是四个字母的基因所产生出来的结果：A、T、C和G——DNA的基本单元，但现在这一历史要改写了。在这场富有远见的演说中，合成生物学家佛洛伊德 E. 罗姆斯柏格向大家介绍了用六个字母的DNA所创造出来的生物体，这是史无前例的——四个天然的字母加上两个人造的字母，X和Y——他也探讨了这项突破会如何挑战我们对于大自然造物的了解。
Floyd E. Romesberg - Chemist, synthetic biologist
Floyd E. Romesberg uses chemistry, biology and physics to study how biomolecules work and to create biomolecules with new forms and functions. Full bio
Floyd E. Romesberg uses chemistry, biology and physics to study how biomolecules work and to create biomolecules with new forms and functions. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:12
All life,
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所有的生命，
历史上所有的生物，
00:14
every living thing ever,
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都是根据 DNA 中的
信息创造出来的。
信息创造出来的。
00:15
has been built according
to the information in DNA.
to the information in DNA.
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那是什么意思？
00:18
What does that mean?
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意思是，就如同英语这门语言，
00:20
Well, it means that just
as the English language
as the English language
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生命也是用字母组成的，
字母再拼成词汇，
字母再拼成词汇，
00:22
is made up of alphabetic letters
that, when combined into words,
that, when combined into words,
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今天我要给大家讲个故事。
00:26
allow me to tell you the story
I'm going to tell you today,
I'm going to tell you today,
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DNA 是用基因字母组成的，
当它们拼成基因之后，
当它们拼成基因之后，
00:28
DNA is made up of genetic letters
that, when combined into genes,
that, when combined into genes,
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细胞就能够产出蛋白质，
00:32
allow cells to produce proteins,
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这些蛋白质是一串串氨基酸
折叠而成的复杂结构，
折叠而成的复杂结构，
00:34
strings of amino acids
that fold up into complex structures
that fold up into complex structures
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它可以实现一些功能，
让细胞正常工作，
让细胞正常工作，
00:37
that perform the functions
that allow a cell to do what it does,
that allow a cell to do what it does,
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说出它的故事。
00:40
to tell its stories.
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英文字母表有二十六个字母，
基因字母表则有四个字母。
基因字母表则有四个字母。
00:42
The English alphabet has 26 letters,
and the genetic alphabet has four.
and the genetic alphabet has four.
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它们很有名，你们可能听过，
00:46
They're pretty famous.
Maybe you've heard of them.
Maybe you've heard of them.
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通常直接用 G、C、A和 T 来表示。
00:48
They are often just
referred to as G, C, A and T.
referred to as G, C, A and T.
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00:52
But it's remarkable
that all the diversity of life
that all the diversity of life
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但惊人的是，各式各样的生命
都是由四个基因字母产生出来的。
00:55
is the result of four genetic letters.
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00:59
Imagine what it would be like
if the English alphabet had four letters.
if the English alphabet had four letters.
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想像一下，如果英文字母表
只有四个字，会是怎样的状况？
只有四个字，会是怎样的状况？
你能讲出什么样的故事？
01:03
What sort of stories
would you be able to tell?
would you be able to tell?
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01:07
What if the genetic alphabet
had more letters?
had more letters?
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如果基因字母表
有更多字，又会如何？
有更多字，又会如何？
01:11
Would life with more letters
be able to tell different stories,
be able to tell different stories,
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有更多基因字母的生命
会不会说出不同的故事，
会不会说出不同的故事，
或是更有趣的故事？
01:14
maybe even more interesting ones?
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01:18
In 1999, my lab at the Scripps
Research Institute in La Jolla, California
Research Institute in La Jolla, California
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1999 年，我在加州拉霍亚的
斯克里普斯研究所中的一间实验室
斯克里普斯研究所中的一间实验室
01:22
started working on this question
with the goal of creating living organisms
with the goal of creating living organisms
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开始探究这个问题，
目标是要创造出活的有机体，
目标是要创造出活的有机体，
它们的DNA由六个基因字母组成，
01:26
with DNA made up
of a six-letter genetic alphabet,
of a six-letter genetic alphabet,
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包括四个天然的字母，
再加上两个人造的新字母。
再加上两个人造的新字母。
01:29
the four natural letters
plus two additional new man-made letters.
plus two additional new man-made letters.
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01:35
Such an organism would be
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这种有机体从根本上
改变了的生命形式，且史无前例。
01:36
the first radically altered
form of life ever created.
form of life ever created.
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它会是半合成的生命形式，
01:39
It would be a semisynthetic form of life
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至今没有任何生命
能像它储存那么多信息。
能像它储存那么多信息。
01:41
that stores more information
than life ever has before.
than life ever has before.
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01:46
It would be able to make new proteins,
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它能够制造出新的蛋白质，
不单单只用那二十种
通常用来制造蛋白质的
通常用来制造蛋白质的
01:48
proteins built from more
than the 20 normal amino acids
than the 20 normal amino acids
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常见氨基酸。
01:50
that are usually used to build proteins.
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01:53
What sort of stories could that life tell?
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那样的生命能说出什么样的故事？
01:57
With the power of synthetic chemistry
and molecular biology
and molecular biology
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靠着合成化学和分子
生物学的强大帮助，
生物学的强大帮助，
只花了不到二十年，
02:00
and just under 20 years of work,
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我们就创造出 DNA
有六个字母的细菌。
有六个字母的细菌。
02:01
we created bacteria with six-letter DNA.
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让我说一下怎么做到的吧。
02:04
Let me tell you how we did it.
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02:06
All you have to remember
from your high school biology
from your high school biology
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你只需要记住高中
生物学中的一样东西，
生物学中的一样东西，
那就是：四个天然基因字母
配对形成两组基础配对。
配对形成两组基础配对。
02:09
is that the four natural letters
pair together to form two base pairs.
pair together to form two base pairs.
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G 和 C 配对，A 和 T 配对，
02:12
G pairs with C and A pairs with T,
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所以，为了创造新字母，
02:15
so to create our new letters,
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我们合成了数百种新候选字母，
02:16
we synthesized hundreds of new candidates,
new candidate letters,
new candidate letters,
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研究它们和彼此
做选择性配对的能力。
做选择性配对的能力。
02:20
and examined their abilities
to selectively pair with each other.
to selectively pair with each other.
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经过约十五年的努力，
02:23
And after about 15 years of work,
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我们发现两个字母
配对起来的状况非常好，
配对起来的状况非常好，
02:25
we found two that paired
together really well,
together really well,
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至少在试管中是如此。
02:27
at least in a test tube.
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它们的名字很复杂，
02:29
They have complicated names,
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就姑且称它们为 X 和 Y。
02:31
but let's just call them X and Y.
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02:33
The next thing we needed to do
was find a way to get X and Y into cells,
was find a way to get X and Y into cells,
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接着我们需要做的事，
是要想办法把 X 和 Y 放入细胞中，
是要想办法把 X 和 Y 放入细胞中，
终于，我们发现我们的细菌中
02:37
and eventually we found that a protein
that does something similar in algae
that does something similar in algae
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有一种蛋白质和
海藻的蛋白质性能类似。
海藻的蛋白质性能类似。
02:40
worked in our bacteria.
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所以，我们需要做的最后一件事，
就是要证明在有 X 和 Y 的前提下，
就是要证明在有 X 和 Y 的前提下，
02:42
So the final thing that we needed to do
was to show that with X and Y provided,
was to show that with X and Y provided,
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细胞仍然能够生长和分裂，
且它们的 DNA 中保有 X 和 Y。
且它们的 DNA 中保有 X 和 Y。
02:46
cells could grow and divide
and hold on to X and Y in their DNA.
and hold on to X and Y in their DNA.
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02:51
Everything we had done up to then
took longer than I had hoped --
took longer than I had hoped --
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在那之前我们做的一切，
花的时间都比我期望的还长——
花的时间都比我期望的还长——
我其实是个很没耐心的人——
02:55
I am actually a really impatient person --
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但这个最重要的步骤，
成功的速度比我梦想的还快，
成功的速度比我梦想的还快，
02:57
but this, the most important step,
worked faster than I dreamed,
worked faster than I dreamed,
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03:01
basically immediately.
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基本上是一蹴而就。
03:04
On a weekend in 2014,
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在 2014 年的一个周末，
我实验室里的研究生栽培出了
有六个字母 DNA 的细菌。
有六个字母 DNA 的细菌。
03:06
a graduate student in my lab
grew bacteria with six-letter DNA.
grew bacteria with six-letter DNA.
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03:10
Let me take the opportunity
to introduce you to them right now.
to introduce you to them right now.
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让我利用这个机会
把它们介绍给各位。
把它们介绍给各位。
这是它们的真实照片。
03:13
This is an actual picture of them.
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03:16
These are the first
semisynthetic organisms.
semisynthetic organisms.
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这些是最早的半合成有机体。
03:21
So bacteria with six-letter DNA,
that's really cool, right?
that's really cool, right?
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DNA 有六个字母的细菌，
真的很酷，对吧？
真的很酷，对吧？
也许在座有些人
仍然很纳闷为什么要这样做。
仍然很纳闷为什么要这样做。
03:24
Well, maybe some of you
are still wondering why.
are still wondering why.
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03:27
So let me tell you a little bit more
about some of our motivations,
about some of our motivations,
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让我跟各位简略说明
我们的一部分动机，
我们的一部分动机，
包括概念上和实际上的动机。
03:30
both conceptual and practical.
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概念上，人们会思考生命是什么、
03:32
Conceptually, people have
thought about life, what it is,
thought about life, what it is,
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生命和非生命的差别在哪里，
03:35
what makes it different
from things that are not alive,
from things that are not alive,
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人类从会思考时就在想这些了。
03:38
since people have had thoughts.
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许多人对于生命的诠释就是完美，
03:39
Many have interpreted
life as being perfect,
life as being perfect,
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03:42
and this was taken
as evidence of a creator.
as evidence of a creator.
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甚至被视为造物主存在的证据。
生物之所以不同，
是因为神赋予它们生命。
是因为神赋予它们生命。
03:44
Living things are different
because a god breathed life into them.
because a god breathed life into them.
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其他人则用比较科学的解释，
03:48
Others have sought
a more scientific explanation,
a more scientific explanation,
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但我认为，可以说
03:50
but I think it's fair to say
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他们仍然认为生命的分子是特别的。
03:52
that they still consider
the molecules of life to be special.
the molecules of life to be special.
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我的意思是，数十亿年来，
演化已经把它们最优化了，对吧？
演化已经把它们最优化了，对吧？
03:55
I mean, evolution has been optimizing them
for billions of years, right?
for billions of years, right?
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不论你采用哪一种观点，
似乎化学家都不可能
似乎化学家都不可能
03:58
Whatever perspective you take,
it would seem pretty impossible
it would seem pretty impossible
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创造出能在生命的自然分子中运作
04:01
for chemists to come in
and build new parts
and build new parts
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或与之一起运作的新部位，
04:03
that function within and alongside
the natural molecules of life
the natural molecules of life
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而且还不会把事情搞砸。
04:06
without somehow
really screwing everything up.
really screwing everything up.
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04:10
But just how perfectly
created or evolved are we?
created or evolved are we?
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但我们到底被创造或演化得多完美？
生命的分子到底有多特别？
04:13
Just how special
are the molecules of life?
are the molecules of life?
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04:16
These questions have been
impossible to even ask,
impossible to even ask,
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这些问题，连要被问出来都不可能，
因为我们没有任何东西
可以拿来和生命做比较。
可以拿来和生命做比较。
04:19
because we've had nothing
to compare life to.
to compare life to.
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04:22
Now for the first time, our work suggests
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史上第一次，我们的研究指出
也许生命的分子并没有那么特别，
04:24
that maybe the molecules of life
aren't that special.
aren't that special.
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也许我们所知道的生命
并不是唯一的生命形式。
并不是唯一的生命形式。
04:26
Maybe life as we know it
isn't the only way it could be.
isn't the only way it could be.
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04:30
Maybe we're not the only solution,
maybe not even the best solution,
maybe not even the best solution,
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也许我们不是唯一的解决方案，
甚至不是最好的解决方案，
甚至不是最好的解决方案，
也许只是一种解决方案。
04:34
just a solution.
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04:37
These questions address
fundamental issues about life,
fundamental issues about life,
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这些问题在谈的
是生命的根本议题，
是生命的根本议题，
但它们看似有些深奥。
04:40
but maybe they seem a little esoteric.
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那实用的动机呢？
04:42
So what about practical motivations?
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事实上，我们想要探究
基本单位扩大之后的
基本单位扩大之后的
04:43
Well, we want to explore
what sort of new stories
what sort of new stories
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生命能够讲述怎样的新故事，
04:46
life with an expanded
vocabulary could tell,
vocabulary could tell,
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别忘了，这里的故事
指的是细胞能产生的蛋白质
指的是细胞能产生的蛋白质
04:48
and remember, stories here
are the proteins that a cell produces
are the proteins that a cell produces
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及它们的功能。
04:52
and the functions they have.
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所以，我们的半合成
有机体能够制造出
有机体能够制造出
04:53
So what sort of new proteins
with new types of functions
with new types of functions
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怎样的新功能蛋白质，
甚至能为我们所用呢？
甚至能为我们所用呢？
04:56
could our semisynthetic organisms
make and maybe even use?
make and maybe even use?
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我们对此有一些想法。
05:00
Well, we have a couple of things in mind.
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05:03
The first is to get the cells
to make proteins for us, for our use.
to make proteins for us, for our use.
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首先是要让细胞为我们
制造蛋白质，让我们使用。
制造蛋白质，让我们使用。
现今，蛋白质
05:07
Proteins are being used today
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被用在很广泛的应用领域中，
05:09
for an increasingly broad
range of different applications,
range of different applications,
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从保护士兵不受伤的材料，
05:12
from materials that protect
soldiers from injury
soldiers from injury
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到检测危险化合物的装置，
05:14
to devices that detect
dangerous compounds,
dangerous compounds,
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但至少对我来说，
05:16
but at least to me,
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最让人兴奋的应用是蛋白质药物。
05:17
the most exciting application
is protein drugs.
is protein drugs.
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05:21
Despite being relatively new,
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虽然相对比较新，
但蛋白质药物已经改革了医学，
05:22
protein drugs have already
revolutionized medicine,
revolutionized medicine,
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比如，胰岛素是一种蛋白质。
05:25
and, for example, insulin is a protein.
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你们可能听过它，被作为
药物源源不断的生产，
药物源源不断的生产，
05:27
You've probably heard of it,
and it's manufactured as a drug
and it's manufactured as a drug
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完全改变了我们
对糖尿病的治疗方式。
对糖尿病的治疗方式。
05:30
that has completely changed
how we treat diabetes.
how we treat diabetes.
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但问题是，蛋白质很难生产，
05:33
But the problem is that proteins
are really hard to make
are really hard to make
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取得蛋白质的唯一实际方式，
就是叫细胞产生蛋白质。
就是叫细胞产生蛋白质。
05:36
and the only practical way to get them
is to get cells to make them for you.
is to get cells to make them for you.
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05:40
So of course, with natural cells,
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所以，你只能让自然细胞
05:42
you can only get them to make
proteins with the natural amino acids,
proteins with the natural amino acids,
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利用天然氨基酸制造蛋白质，
所以那些蛋白质能拥有的特性、
05:46
and so the properties
those proteins can have,
those proteins can have,
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能够开发出来的用途，
05:48
the applications
they could be developed for,
they could be developed for,
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都会被那些用来制造
蛋白质的氨基酸的
蛋白质的氨基酸的
05:50
must be limited by the nature
of those amino acids
of those amino acids
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天然性质所限制。
05:53
that the protein's built from.
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这就是它们，
05:54
So here they are,
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二十种常见氨基酸，它们通过
相互结合来制造蛋白质，
相互结合来制造蛋白质，
05:56
the 20 normal amino acids that are
strung together to make a protein,
strung together to make a protein,
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它们看起来差别不大。
05:59
and I think you can see,
they're not that different-looking.
they're not that different-looking.
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它们并没有带来
06:02
They don't bring
that many different functions.
that many different functions.
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创造出供许多不同的功能，
06:04
They don't make that many
different functions available.
different functions available.
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相对于合成化学家所制造的
药物小分子来说。
药物小分子来说。
06:07
Compare that with the small molecules
that synthetic chemists make as drugs.
that synthetic chemists make as drugs.
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这些小分子比蛋白质更简单，
06:10
Now, they're much simpler than proteins,
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但它们是由更多不同形式的
东西创造出来的。
东西创造出来的。
06:12
but they're routinely built from
a much broader range of diverse things.
a much broader range of diverse things.
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不需要关注那些细节
06:16
Don't worry about the molecular details,
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你们就能看出它们之间的差别。
06:18
but I think you can see
how different they are.
how different they are.
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事实上，正是它们的差异，
让它们成为很棒的药物，
让它们成为很棒的药物，
06:20
And in fact, it's their differences
that make them great drugs
that make them great drugs
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用来治疗不同的疾病。
06:23
to treat different diseases.
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所以，令人兴奋的地方在于，
以更多样化的蛋白质作为来源，
以更多样化的蛋白质作为来源，
06:24
So it's really provocative to wonder
what sort of new protein drugs
what sort of new protein drugs
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我们可以开发出
什么样的新蛋白质药物。
什么样的新蛋白质药物。
06:29
you could develop if you could build
proteins from more diverse things.
proteins from more diverse things.
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06:33
So can we get our semisynthetic organism
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那么，我们能否用
我们的半合成有机体
我们的半合成有机体
来制造出蛋白质，
且包含不同的新氨基酸，
且包含不同的新氨基酸，
06:35
to make proteins that include
new and different amino acids,
new and different amino acids,
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也许是精选的氨基酸，
来赋予蛋白质
来赋予蛋白质
06:39
maybe amino acids
selected to confer the protein
selected to confer the protein
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某些我们想要的特性或功能呢？
06:41
with some desired property or function?
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06:44
For example,
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比如，
许多蛋白质被注射到
人体内就会失去稳定性，
人体内就会失去稳定性，
06:45
many proteins just aren't stable
when you inject them into people.
when you inject them into people.
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它们很快就会被降解，消失，
06:49
They are rapidly degraded or eliminated,
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06:51
and this stops them from being drugs.
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因此它们无法成为药物。
06:54
What if we could make proteins
with new amino acids
with new amino acids
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如果我们能用新的
氨基酸来制造蛋白质，
氨基酸来制造蛋白质，
在它们上面附加一些功能，
06:56
with things attached to them
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可以保护它们不受环境影响，
06:58
that protect them from their environment,
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07:00
that protect them
from being degraded or eliminated,
from being degraded or eliminated,
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可以保护它们不被降解，
让它们能成为更好的药物会如何？
07:03
so that they could be better drugs?
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07:07
Could we make proteins
with little fingers attached
with little fingers attached
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我们能不能在蛋白质上
附加一些小触手，
附加一些小触手，
用来准确地紧抓其它的分子？
07:10
that specifically
grab on to other molecules?
grab on to other molecules?
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07:13
Many small molecules
failed during development as drugs
failed during development as drugs
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许多小分子被用来
开发药物时会失败，
开发药物时会失败，
是因为它们的特异性
比较低，无法在人体的
比较低，无法在人体的
07:16
because they just weren't
specific enough to find their target
specific enough to find their target
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复杂环境中找到它们的目标。
07:19
in the complex environment
of the human body.
of the human body.
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那么，我们能不能用这些分子
来当作新氨基酸的一些部分，
来当作新氨基酸的一些部分，
07:21
So could we take those molecules
and make them parts of new amino acids
and make them parts of new amino acids
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当把它们整合到蛋白质中时，
07:25
that, when incorporated into a protein,
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该蛋白质就会引导它们找到目标呢？
07:27
are guided by that protein
to their target?
to their target?
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07:32
I started a biotech company
called Synthorx.
called Synthorx.
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我创立了一家叫做
Synthorx的生物科技公司。
Synthorx的生物科技公司。
07:34
Synthorx stands for synthetic organism
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Synthorx 代表“合成有机体”，
在最后加上“X”是因为
生物科技公司都会这样做。
生物科技公司都会这样做。
07:36
with an X added at the end because
that's what you do with biotech companies.
that's what you do with biotech companies.
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（笑声）
07:40
(Laughter)
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Synthorx 和我的实验室密切合作，
07:42
Synthorx is working closely with my lab,
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他们对能够识别人体细胞
表面上的某种受体的蛋白质
表面上的某种受体的蛋白质
07:44
and they're interested in a protein
that recognizes a certain receptor
that recognizes a certain receptor
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07:48
on the surface of human cells.
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非常感兴趣。
但问题是，它也会识别
07:50
But the problem is that it also recognizes
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同样细胞表面上的另一种受体，
07:52
another receptor on the surface
of those same cells,
of those same cells,
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而这样则会带来毒性。
07:55
and that makes it toxic.
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07:57
So could we produce
a variant of that protein
a variant of that protein
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那么，我们能否制造出
那种蛋白质的变体，
那种蛋白质的变体，
把会和第二种不良受体
发生作用的那部分给掩盖起来，
发生作用的那部分给掩盖起来，
07:59
where the part that interacts
with that second bad receptor is shielded,
with that second bad receptor is shielded,
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用像大伞样的东西把它屏蔽掉，
08:04
blocked by something like a big umbrella
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让蛋白质只会和第一种
好的受体发生作用？
好的受体发生作用？
08:06
so that the protein only interacts
with that first good receptor?
with that first good receptor?
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08:10
Doing that would be really difficult
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用常见的氨基酸很难
或根本不可能做到这一点，
08:12
or impossible to do
with the normal amino acids,
with the normal amino acids,
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但若用专门为此目的而设计的
氨基酸就不用担心了。
氨基酸就不用担心了。
08:14
but not with amino acids that are
specifically designed for that purpose.
specifically designed for that purpose.
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08:20
So getting our semisynthetic cells
to act as little factories
to act as little factories
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然而，把我们的半合成
细胞当成小工厂
细胞当成小工厂
制造出比较好的蛋白质药物，
08:23
to produce better protein drugs
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并非唯一有趣的应用，
08:25
isn't the only potentially
really interesting application,
really interesting application,
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因为要记住，是蛋白质
让细胞实现它们的功能。
让细胞实现它们的功能。
08:28
because remember, it's the proteins
that allow cells to do what they do.
that allow cells to do what they do.
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08:32
So if we have cells that make
new proteins with new functions,
new proteins with new functions,
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所以，如果有细胞能够制造出
具有新功能的新蛋白质，
具有新功能的新蛋白质，
08:35
could we get them to do things
that natural cells can't do?
that natural cells can't do?
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我们是否能让它们做到
自然细胞无法做到的事？
自然细胞无法做到的事？
比如，我们能否开发出
一种半合成有机体，
一种半合成有机体，
08:39
For example, could we develop
semisynthetic organisms
semisynthetic organisms
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注射到人体中，去寻找癌细胞，
08:42
that when injected into a person,
seek out cancer cells
seek out cancer cells
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08:46
and only when they find them,
secrete a toxic protein that kills them?
secrete a toxic protein that kills them?
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只有找到癌细胞时，才会
分泌有毒蛋白质来杀死癌细胞？
分泌有毒蛋白质来杀死癌细胞？
08:50
Could we create bacteria
that eat different kinds of oil,
that eat different kinds of oil,
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我们能否创造出一种细菌，
能吃掉不同类的油，
能吃掉不同类的油，
也许能用来清理原油泄漏？
08:53
maybe to clean up an oil spill?
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上述这些，只是当词汇量增加时
08:55
These are just a couple
of the types of stories
of the types of stories
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生命能诉说的其中几种故事。
08:57
that we're going to see if life
with an expanded vocabulary can tell.
with an expanded vocabulary can tell.
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听起来很棒，对吧？
09:00
So, sounds great, right?
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将半合成有机体注射到人体中，
09:02
Injecting semisynthetic
organisms into people,
organisms into people,
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将数百万加仑这种细菌倒入海洋中
09:05
dumping millions and millions of gallons
of our bacteria into the ocean
of our bacteria into the ocean
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或倒在你最爱的海滩上？
09:08
or out on your favorite beach?
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喔，等等，这听起来
其实挺吓人的。
其实挺吓人的。
09:10
Oh, wait a minute,
actually it sounds really scary.
actually it sounds really scary.
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这只恐龙的确挺吓人的。
09:12
This dinosaur is really scary.
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09:16
But here's the catch:
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但有个困难之处：
我们的半合成有机体为了要生存，
09:18
our semisynthetic organisms
in order to survive,
in order to survive,
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会需要被喂食 X 和 Y的化学前体。
09:21
need to be fed the chemical
precursors of X and Y.
precursors of X and Y.
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09:25
X and Y are completely different
than anything that exists in nature.
than anything that exists in nature.
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X 和 Y 和大自然中存在的
任何东西都完全不同。
任何东西都完全不同。
09:30
Cells just don't have them
or the ability to make them.
or the ability to make them.
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细胞没有它们，
也没有能力制造它们。
也没有能力制造它们。
09:33
So when we prepare them,
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所以，当我们在实验室
受控环境中制造出它们时，
09:34
when we grow them up
in the controlled environment of the lab,
in the controlled environment of the lab,
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我们可以喂食它们
很多非天然的食物。
很多非天然的食物。
09:37
we can feed them
lots of the unnatural food.
lots of the unnatural food.
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接着，当我们把它们散布到
人体中或外面的海滩上，
人体中或外面的海滩上，
09:39
Then, when we deploy them
in a person or out on a beach
in a person or out on a beach
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在那些地方，它们无法
取得特别的食物，
取得特别的食物，
09:43
where they no longer
have access that special food,
have access that special food,
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它们可以成长一点点，
它们可以生存一会儿，
它们可以生存一会儿，
09:46
they can grow for a little bit,
they can survive for a little,
they can survive for a little,
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也许刚好长到足以实现
一些我们希望的功能，
一些我们希望的功能，
09:49
maybe just long enough
to perform some intended function,
to perform some intended function,
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但接着，它们就没有食物可吃了。
09:52
but then they start
to run out of the food.
to run out of the food.
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它们会开始挨饿。
09:54
They start to starve.
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它们会饿死，然后消失。
09:56
They starve to death
and they just disappear.
and they just disappear.
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09:59
So not only could we get life
to tell new stories,
to tell new stories,
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所以，我们不但能
让生命说新的故事，
让生命说新的故事，
也能控制生命在特定地点
与时间说新故事。
与时间说新故事。
10:01
we get to tell life when and where
to tell those stories.
to tell those stories.
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10:07
At the beginning of this talk
I told you that we reported in 2014
I told you that we reported in 2014
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在这场演讲的一开始，
我告诉各位我们在 2014 年
我告诉各位我们在 2014 年
创造出了半合成有机体，
能储存更多信息，
能储存更多信息，
10:10
the creation of semisynthetic organisms
that store more information,
that store more information,
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将 X 和 Y 存在它们的 DNA 中。
10:13
X and Y, in their DNA.
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但我们刚刚谈到的所有动机，
10:16
But all the motivations
that we just talked about
that we just talked about
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需要细胞能够使用 X 和 Y
来制造蛋白质，
来制造蛋白质，
10:18
require cells to use X and Y
to make proteins,
to make proteins,
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所以我们开始处理这一点。
10:20
so we started working on that.
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10:23
Within a couple years, we showed
that the cells could take DNA with X and Y
that the cells could take DNA with X and Y
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在几年内，我们证明了
细胞能够把有 X 和 Y 的 DNA
细胞能够把有 X 和 Y 的 DNA
复制到 RNA，也就是
DNA 的工作拷贝。
DNA 的工作拷贝。
10:27
and copy it into RNA,
the working copy of DNA.
the working copy of DNA.
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10:31
And late last year,
216
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去年年底，
我们证明了它们还可以
用 X 和 Y 来制造蛋白质。
用 X 和 Y 来制造蛋白质。
10:33
we showed that they could then
use X and Y to make proteins.
use X and Y to make proteins.
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这就是相关研究的主角，
10:36
Here they are, the stars of the show,
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史上第一个全功能半合成有机体。
10:39
the first fully-functional
semisynthetic organisms.
semisynthetic organisms.
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10:43
(Applause)
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（掌声）
10:50
These cells are green because
they're making a protein that glows green.
they're making a protein that glows green.
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这些细胞是绿色的，因为它们会
制造出一种发绿光的蛋白质。
制造出一种发绿光的蛋白质。
事实上，这种蛋白质
很有名，来自水母，
很有名，来自水母，
10:53
It's a pretty famous protein,
actually, from jellyfish
actually, from jellyfish
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很多人会使用它的天然形式，
10:56
that a lot of people use
in its natural form
in its natural form
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因为这样可以很容易
看出你造出來了。
看出你造出來了。
10:58
because it's easy to see that you made it.
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11:01
But within every one of these proteins,
225
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然而，在所有这些蛋白质中，
有一种新的氨基酸，自然生命
无法用它来制造蛋白质。
无法用它来制造蛋白质。
11:03
there's a new amino acid that
natural life can't build proteins with.
natural life can't build proteins with.
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11:09
Every living cell, every living cell ever,
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史上所有的活细胞，
11:14
has made every one of its proteins
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不论是制造哪一种蛋白质，
都是使用了四个特定的基因字母。
11:16
using a four-letter genetic alphabet.
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11:19
These cells are living and growing
and making protein
and making protein
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而这些细胞是活的，
会成长，还会制造出
会成长，还会制造出
六个字母的蛋白质。
11:23
with a six-letter alphabet.
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它们是新的生命形式。
11:25
These are a new form of life.
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11:28
This is a semisynthetic form of life.
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这是一种半合成的生命形式。
11:31
So what about the future?
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那么未来呢？
我的实验室已经在努力扩展
其它细胞的基因字母，
其它细胞的基因字母，
11:33
My lab is already working on expanding
the genetic alphabet of other cells,
the genetic alphabet of other cells,
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包括人类细胞，
11:37
including human cells,
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且我们已经准备好要开始
创造更复杂的有机体。
创造更复杂的有机体。
11:38
and we're getting ready to start working
on more complex organisms.
on more complex organisms.
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想想半合成的蠕虫。
11:42
Think semisynthetic worms.
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11:45
The last thing I want to say to you,
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我想要告诉各位的最后一件事，
也是最重要的：
11:47
the most important thing
that I want to say to you,
that I want to say to you,
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半合成生命的时代已经到来。
11:49
is that the time
of semisynthetic life is here.
of semisynthetic life is here.
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11:52
Thank you.
242
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谢谢。
（掌声）
11:54
(Applause)
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12:05
Chris Anderson: I mean,
Floyd, this is so remarkable.
Floyd, this is so remarkable.
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克里斯·安德森：
弗洛伊德，这真是了不起。
弗洛伊德，这真是了不起。
我想问问你，
12:08
I just wanted to ask you,
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你的研究究竟意味着什么？
12:10
what are the implications of your work
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我们该如何看待生命的可能性，
12:13
for how we should think
about the possibilities for life,
about the possibilities for life,
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比如，在宇宙中，或者其它地方？
12:17
like, in the universe, elsewhere?
248
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感觉就是，生命有大一部分，
或是说我们的很大一部分假设
或是说我们的很大一部分假设
12:19
It just seems like so much of life,
or so much of our assumptions are based
or so much of our assumptions are based
249
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是基于这个事实：一切都跟 DNA有关，
12:23
on the fact that of course,
it's got to be DNA,
it's got to be DNA,
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但自我复制分子出现的可能性
12:26
but is the possibility space
of self-replicating molecules
of self-replicating molecules
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是否比 DNA 大很多，
甚至只是六个字母的 DNA？
甚至只是六个字母的 DNA？
12:30
much bigger than DNA,
even just DNA with six letters?
even just DNA with six letters?
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弗洛伊德：是的，没错。
12:33
Floyd Romesberg:
Absolutely, I think that's right,
Absolutely, I think that's right,
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我们的研究显示，
12:36
and I think what our work has shown,
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正如我先前提过的，
一直以来都有一种偏见存在，
一直以来都有一种偏见存在，
12:38
as I mentioned, is that
there's been always this prejudice
there's been always this prejudice
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认为人类就是完美的，
12:41
that sort of we're perfect,
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我们是最理想化的，
神把我们创造成这样，
神把我们创造成这样，
12:43
we're optimal, God created us this way,
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演化把我们变得这么完美。
12:45
evolution perfected us this way.
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我们做出的分子能够
和天然分子并存，
和天然分子并存，
12:47
We've made molecules that work
right alongside the natural ones,
right alongside the natural ones,
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12:52
and I think that suggests
that any molecules
that any molecules
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我认为那意味着任何分子
只要能遵守化学
和物理的基本原理，
和物理的基本原理，
12:55
that obey the fundamental laws
of chemistry and physics
of chemistry and physics
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且能被最优化，
12:58
and you can optimize them
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那它们就能够做到生命的
天然分子能做到的事。
天然分子能做到的事。
12:59
could do the things that
the natural molecules of life do.
the natural molecules of life do.
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这不是什么魔法。
13:02
There's nothing magic there.
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我认为，那意味着，
13:04
And I think that it suggests
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13:05
that life could evolve
many different ways,
many different ways,
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生命演化的方式有很多种，
也许有与我们拥有
类似 DNA 的生命体，
类似 DNA 的生命体，
13:07
maybe similar to us
with other types of DNA,
with other types of DNA,
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或也许完全不含 DNA 的东西。
13:10
maybe things without DNA at all.
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13:13
CA: I mean, in your mind,
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克里斯蒂安：在你心中，
那种可能性有多大？
13:14
how big might that possibility space be?
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13:17
Do we even know? Are most things going
to look something like a DNA molecule,
to look something like a DNA molecule,
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我们认得出来吗？大部分的东西
都会看起来像 DNA 分子吗？
都会看起来像 DNA 分子吗？
或是极度不同的生命体
也能够自我繁殖，
也能够自我繁殖，
13:21
or something radically different
that can still self-reproduce
that can still self-reproduce
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且有可能创造出活的有机体？
13:24
and potentially create living organisms?
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弗洛伊德：我个人的意见是，
如果我们找到了新生命，
如果我们找到了新生命，
13:26
FR: My personal opinion
is that if we found new life,
is that if we found new life,
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我们可能也不会认出它。
13:28
we might not even recognize it.
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克里斯蒂安：那么我们对
寻找宜居行星的迷恋，
寻找宜居行星的迷恋，
13:31
CA: So this obsession
with the search for Goldilocks planets
with the search for Goldilocks planets
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一定要找到有水
和其它生命的地方，
和其它生命的地方，
13:34
in exactly the right place
with water and whatever,
with water and whatever,
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这样的假设是不是显得太狭隘了？
13:36
that's a very parochial
assumption, perhaps.
assumption, perhaps.
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弗洛伊德：如果你能找人
谈谈这件事，那答案也许是否定的。
谈谈这件事，那答案也许是否定的。
13:38
FR: Well, if you want to find someone
you can talk to, then maybe not,
you can talk to, then maybe not,
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但如果你只是想找到
其它任何形式的生命，
其它任何形式的生命，
13:42
but I think that if you're just
looking for any form of life,
looking for any form of life,
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那么没错，我想其它
生命形式就近在眼前。
生命形式就近在眼前。
13:45
I think that's right, I think that you're
looking for life under the light post.
looking for life under the light post.
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克里斯蒂安：谢谢你带来这些惊喜。
非常谢谢，弗洛伊德。
非常谢谢，弗洛伊德。
13:49
CA: Thank you for boggling all our minds.
Thank so much, Floyd.
Thank so much, Floyd.
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（掌声）
13:52
(Applause)
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Translated by Yi-Fan Yu
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Floyd E. Romesberg - Chemist, synthetic biologistFloyd E. Romesberg uses chemistry, biology and physics to study how biomolecules work and to create biomolecules with new forms and functions.
Why you should listen
Floyd E. Romesberg is the director of a talented team of researchers at The Scripps Research Institute who are working to understand how evolution tailors protein function, to develop novel antibiotics and aptamers and to expand on the potential of evolution through the expansion of the genetic alphabet. A chemist by training, Romesberg works beyond the traditional divides between scientific disciplines.
Since the last common ancestor of all life on earth, biological information has been stored in a four-letter alphabet consisting of G, A, T and C. In 1998, Romesberg wondered: Is DNA limited to four letters? The answer is a resounding "No!" Romesberg and his research group have designed, tested and optimized hundreds of unnatural DNA letters, and they have achieved impressive milestones including replication and amplification of six-letter DNA in a test tube; the use of six-letter DNA to produce novel materials; and most recently the creation of semi-synthetic life that stores and retrieves the increased information. The advances led to Romesberg founding Synthorx, Inc., a biotechnology company that uses the expanded genetic alphabet to develop novel protein therapeutics.
Floyd E. Romesberg | Speaker | TED.com