TED2018
Floyd E. Romesberg: The radical possibilities of man-made DNA
佛洛伊德 E. 羅姆斯柏格: 人造 DNA 的根本可能性
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史上所有的活細胞都是四個字母的基因所產生出來的結果：A、T、C 和 G —— DNA的基本單位。但，現在有所改變了。在這場有遠景的演說中，合成生物學家佛洛伊德 E. 羅姆斯柏格向大家介紹用六個字母的 DNA 所創造出來的生物體，這是史無前例的——四個天然的字母加上兩個人造的字母，X 和 Y ——他也探討了這項突破會如何挑戰我們對於大自然設計的了解。
Floyd E. Romesberg - Chemist, synthetic biologist
Floyd E. Romesberg uses chemistry, biology and physics to study how biomolecules work and to create biomolecules with new forms and functions. Full bio
Floyd E. Romesberg uses chemistry, biology and physics to study how biomolecules work and to create biomolecules with new forms and functions. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:12
All life,
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所有的生命，
00:14
every living thing ever,
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史上所有的生物，
00:15
has been built according
to the information in DNA.
to the information in DNA.
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都是根據 DNA 中的資訊創造出來的。
00:18
What does that mean?
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那是什麼意思？
00:20
Well, it means that just
as the English language
as the English language
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意思是，如同英語這門語言
是用字母組成的，
是用字母組成的，
00:22
is made up of alphabetic letters
that, when combined into words,
that, when combined into words,
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把字母拼成字詞之後，
00:26
allow me to tell you the story
I'm going to tell you today,
I'm going to tell you today,
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我才能把今天要講的故事
說給你們聽。
說給你們聽。
00:28
DNA is made up of genetic letters
that, when combined into genes,
that, when combined into genes,
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DNA 是用基因字母組成的，
當它們拼成基因之後，
當它們拼成基因之後，
00:32
allow cells to produce proteins,
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細胞就能夠產出蛋白質，
00:34
strings of amino acids
that fold up into complex structures
that fold up into complex structures
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這些蛋白質是一串串胺基酸
摺疊而成的複雜結構，
摺疊而成的複雜結構，
00:37
that perform the functions
that allow a cell to do what it does,
that allow a cell to do what it does,
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執行一些功能，
讓細胞可以做它的工作，
讓細胞可以做它的工作，
00:40
to tell its stories.
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說出它的故事。
00:42
The English alphabet has 26 letters,
and the genetic alphabet has four.
and the genetic alphabet has four.
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英文字母表有二十六個字母，
基因字母表則有四個字母。
基因字母表則有四個字母。
00:46
They're pretty famous.
Maybe you've heard of them.
Maybe you've heard of them.
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它們很有名，你們可能聽過，
通常直接用 G、C、
A 和 T 來表示。
A 和 T 來表示。
00:48
They are often just
referred to as G, C, A and T.
referred to as G, C, A and T.
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00:52
But it's remarkable
that all the diversity of life
that all the diversity of life
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但，很驚人的是，各式各樣的生命
00:55
is the result of four genetic letters.
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都是由四個基因字母產生出來的。
00:59
Imagine what it would be like
if the English alphabet had four letters.
if the English alphabet had four letters.
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想像一下，如果英文字母表
只有四個字，會是怎樣的狀況？
只有四個字，會是怎樣的狀況？
01:03
What sort of stories
would you be able to tell?
would you be able to tell?
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你能講出什麼樣的故事？
01:07
What if the genetic alphabet
had more letters?
had more letters?
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如果基因字母表有更多字，會如何？
01:11
Would life with more letters
be able to tell different stories,
be able to tell different stories,
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更多基因字母的生命
會能夠說出不同的故事嗎？
會能夠說出不同的故事嗎？
01:14
maybe even more interesting ones?
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可能會是更有趣的故事？
01:18
In 1999, my lab at the Scripps
Research Institute in La Jolla, California
Research Institute in La Jolla, California
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1999 年我在加州拉霍亞
斯克里普斯研究所的實驗室
斯克里普斯研究所的實驗室
01:22
started working on this question
with the goal of creating living organisms
with the goal of creating living organisms
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開始探究這個問題，
目標是要創造出活的有機體，
目標是要創造出活的有機體，
01:26
with DNA made up
of a six-letter genetic alphabet,
of a six-letter genetic alphabet,
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它們的 DNA 由六個基因字母組成，
01:29
the four natural letters
plus two additional new man-made letters.
plus two additional new man-made letters.
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包括四個天然的字母，
再加上兩個人造的新字母。
再加上兩個人造的新字母。
01:35
Such an organism would be
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這種有機體會是從根本上
做改變的生命形式，且史無前例。
做改變的生命形式，且史無前例。
01:36
the first radically altered
form of life ever created.
form of life ever created.
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它會是半合成的生命形式，
01:39
It would be a semisynthetic form of life
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01:41
that stores more information
than life ever has before.
than life ever has before.
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至今沒有任何生命
能像它儲存那麼多資訊。
能像它儲存那麼多資訊。
01:46
It would be able to make new proteins,
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它能夠製造出新蛋白質，
01:48
proteins built from more
than the 20 normal amino acids
than the 20 normal amino acids
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不單單只用那二十種常見胺基酸
01:50
that are usually used to build proteins.
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而建立的蛋白質。
01:53
What sort of stories could that life tell?
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那樣的生命能說出什麼樣的故事？
01:57
With the power of synthetic chemistry
and molecular biology
and molecular biology
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靠著合成化學
和分子生物學的強大幫助，
和分子生物學的強大幫助，
02:00
and just under 20 years of work,
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只花了不到二十年，
02:01
we created bacteria with six-letter DNA.
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我們就創造出 DNA
有六個字母的細菌。
有六個字母的細菌。
02:04
Let me tell you how we did it.
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讓我說一下怎麼做到的吧。
02:06
All you have to remember
from your high school biology
from your high school biology
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你只需要記住高中
生物學中的一樣東西，
生物學中的一樣東西，
02:09
is that the four natural letters
pair together to form two base pairs.
pair together to form two base pairs.
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那就是：四個天然基因字母
配對形成兩組基礎配對。
配對形成兩組基礎配對。
02:12
G pairs with C and A pairs with T,
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G 和 C 配對，A 和 T 配對，
02:15
so to create our new letters,
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所以，為了創造新字母，
02:16
we synthesized hundreds of new candidates,
new candidate letters,
new candidate letters,
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我們合成了數百種新候選字母，
02:20
and examined their abilities
to selectively pair with each other.
to selectively pair with each other.
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研究它們和彼此
做選擇性配對的能力。
做選擇性配對的能力。
02:23
And after about 15 years of work,
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經過約十五年的努力，
02:25
we found two that paired
together really well,
together really well,
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我們發現兩個字母
配對起來的狀況非常好，
配對起來的狀況非常好，
02:27
at least in a test tube.
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至少在試管中是如此。
02:29
They have complicated names,
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它們的名字很複雜，
02:31
but let's just call them X and Y.
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就姑且稱它們為 X 和 Y。
02:33
The next thing we needed to do
was find a way to get X and Y into cells,
was find a way to get X and Y into cells,
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接著我們需要做的事，
是要想辦法把 X 和 Y 放入細胞中，
是要想辦法把 X 和 Y 放入細胞中，
02:37
and eventually we found that a protein
that does something similar in algae
that does something similar in algae
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終於，我們發現我們的細菌中
有一種蛋白質和
海藻的蛋白質性能類似，
海藻的蛋白質性能類似，
02:40
worked in our bacteria.
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02:42
So the final thing that we needed to do
was to show that with X and Y provided,
was to show that with X and Y provided,
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所以，我們需要做的最後一件事，
就是要證明在有 X 和 Y 的前提下，
就是要證明在有 X 和 Y 的前提下，
02:46
cells could grow and divide
and hold on to X and Y in their DNA.
and hold on to X and Y in their DNA.
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細胞仍然能夠生長和分裂，
且它們的 DNA 中保有 X 和 Y。
且它們的 DNA 中保有 X 和 Y。
02:51
Everything we had done up to then
took longer than I had hoped --
took longer than I had hoped --
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在那之前我們做的一切，
花的時間都比我期望的還長——
花的時間都比我期望的還長——
02:55
I am actually a really impatient person --
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我其實是個很沒耐心的人——
02:57
but this, the most important step,
worked faster than I dreamed,
worked faster than I dreamed,
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但，這個最重要的步驟，
成功的速度比我夢想的還快，
成功的速度比我夢想的還快，
03:01
basically immediately.
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基本上是立馬成功。
03:04
On a weekend in 2014,
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在 2014 的一個週末，
03:06
a graduate student in my lab
grew bacteria with six-letter DNA.
grew bacteria with six-letter DNA.
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我實驗室裡的研究生培殖出了
DNA 有六個字母的細菌。
DNA 有六個字母的細菌。
03:10
Let me take the opportunity
to introduce you to them right now.
to introduce you to them right now.
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讓我利用這個機會
把它們介紹給各位。
把它們介紹給各位。
03:13
This is an actual picture of them.
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這是它們的真實照片。
03:16
These are the first
semisynthetic organisms.
semisynthetic organisms.
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這些是最早的半合成有機體。
03:21
So bacteria with six-letter DNA,
that's really cool, right?
that's really cool, right?
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DNA 有六個字母的細菌，
真的很酷，對吧？
真的很酷，對吧？
03:24
Well, maybe some of you
are still wondering why.
are still wondering why.
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也許在座有些人
仍然很納悶為什麼。
仍然很納悶為什麼。
03:27
So let me tell you a little bit more
about some of our motivations,
about some of our motivations,
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讓我跟各位簡略說明
我們的一部分動機，
我們的一部分動機，
包括概念上和實際上的動機。
03:30
both conceptual and practical.
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03:32
Conceptually, people have
thought about life, what it is,
thought about life, what it is,
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概念上，人們思考過生命是什麼、
03:35
what makes it different
from things that are not alive,
from things that are not alive,
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生命和非生命的差別在哪裡，
從人會思考時就在想這些了。
03:38
since people have had thoughts.
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03:39
Many have interpreted
life as being perfect,
life as being perfect,
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許多人對於生命的詮釋就是完美，
03:42
and this was taken
as evidence of a creator.
as evidence of a creator.
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這被視為是證明
有一個造物主存在的證據。
有一個造物主存在的證據。
03:44
Living things are different
because a god breathed life into them.
because a god breathed life into them.
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生物之所以不同，是因為
有一個神賦予它們生命。
有一個神賦予它們生命。
03:48
Others have sought
a more scientific explanation,
a more scientific explanation,
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其他人則用比較科學的解釋，
03:50
but I think it's fair to say
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但我認為，可以說他們仍然
認為生命的分子是特別的。
認為生命的分子是特別的。
03:52
that they still consider
the molecules of life to be special.
the molecules of life to be special.
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數十億年來，演化已經
把它們最優化了，對吧？
把它們最優化了，對吧？
03:55
I mean, evolution has been optimizing them
for billions of years, right?
for billions of years, right?
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03:58
Whatever perspective you take,
it would seem pretty impossible
it would seem pretty impossible
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不論你採用哪一種觀點，
似乎化學家都不可能
似乎化學家都不可能
04:01
for chemists to come in
and build new parts
and build new parts
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建造出能在生命的自然分子中運作
04:03
that function within and alongside
the natural molecules of life
the natural molecules of life
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或與之一起運作的新部分，
04:06
without somehow
really screwing everything up.
really screwing everything up.
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而且不以某種方式把一切搞砸。
04:10
But just how perfectly
created or evolved are we?
created or evolved are we?
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但，我們到底被
創造得／演化得多完美？
創造得／演化得多完美？
04:13
Just how special
are the molecules of life?
are the molecules of life?
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生命的分子到底有多特別？
04:16
These questions have been
impossible to even ask,
impossible to even ask,
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這些問題，連要問出來都不可能，
04:19
because we've had nothing
to compare life to.
to compare life to.
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因為我們沒有任何東西
可以拿來和生命做比較。
可以拿來和生命做比較。
04:22
Now for the first time, our work suggests
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史上第一次，我們的研究指出
04:24
that maybe the molecules of life
aren't that special.
aren't that special.
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也許生命的分子並沒有那麼特別，
04:26
Maybe life as we know it
isn't the only way it could be.
isn't the only way it could be.
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也許我們所知道的生命
並不是唯一的生命形式。
並不是唯一的生命形式。
04:30
Maybe we're not the only solution,
maybe not even the best solution,
maybe not even the best solution,
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也許我們不是唯一的解決方案，
甚至不是最好的解決方案，
甚至不是最好的解決方案，
04:34
just a solution.
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只是一種解決方案。
04:37
These questions address
fundamental issues about life,
fundamental issues about life,
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這些問題在談的是生命的根本議題，
04:40
but maybe they seem a little esoteric.
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但它們看似有些深奧。
那，實際的動機呢？
04:42
So what about practical motivations?
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04:43
Well, we want to explore
what sort of new stories
what sort of new stories
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嗯，我們想要探究，
字彙擴大之後的生命
能夠講述怎樣的新故事，
能夠講述怎樣的新故事，
04:46
life with an expanded
vocabulary could tell,
vocabulary could tell,
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04:48
and remember, stories here
are the proteins that a cell produces
are the proteins that a cell produces
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且，別忘了，這裡的故事
指的是細胞能產生的蛋白質
指的是細胞能產生的蛋白質
04:52
and the functions they have.
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及它們的功能。
04:53
So what sort of new proteins
with new types of functions
with new types of functions
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所以，我們的半合成有機體
能夠製造甚至使用
能夠製造甚至使用
04:56
could our semisynthetic organisms
make and maybe even use?
make and maybe even use?
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怎樣的擁有新功能的新蛋白質呢？
05:00
Well, we have a couple of things in mind.
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我們有一些想法。
05:03
The first is to get the cells
to make proteins for us, for our use.
to make proteins for us, for our use.
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首先是要讓細胞為我們製造蛋白質，
讓我們使用。
05:07
Proteins are being used today
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現今，蛋白質被用在
很廣泛的應用領域中，
很廣泛的應用領域中，
05:09
for an increasingly broad
range of different applications,
range of different applications,
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從保護士兵不受傷的材料，
05:12
from materials that protect
soldiers from injury
soldiers from injury
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05:14
to devices that detect
dangerous compounds,
dangerous compounds,
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到偵測危險化合物的裝置，
05:16
but at least to me,
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但，至少對我來說，
05:17
the most exciting application
is protein drugs.
is protein drugs.
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最讓人興奮的應用是蛋白質藥物。
05:21
Despite being relatively new,
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雖然相對比較新，
05:22
protein drugs have already
revolutionized medicine,
revolutionized medicine,
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但蛋白質藥物已經改革了醫學，
05:25
and, for example, insulin is a protein.
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比如，胰島素是一種蛋白質。
05:27
You've probably heard of it,
and it's manufactured as a drug
and it's manufactured as a drug
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你們可能聽過它，
它被當作藥物來製造，
它被當作藥物來製造，
05:30
that has completely changed
how we treat diabetes.
how we treat diabetes.
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完全改變了我們
對糖尿病的治療方式。
對糖尿病的治療方式。
05:33
But the problem is that proteins
are really hard to make
are really hard to make
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但，問題是，蛋白質很難製造，
05:36
and the only practical way to get them
is to get cells to make them for you.
is to get cells to make them for you.
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取得蛋白質的唯一實際方式，
就是叫細胞為你製造。
就是叫細胞為你製造。
05:40
So of course, with natural cells,
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所以，當然，你只能讓自然細胞
05:42
you can only get them to make
proteins with the natural amino acids,
proteins with the natural amino acids,
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用自然胺基酸製造出蛋白質，
05:46
and so the properties
those proteins can have,
those proteins can have,
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所以那些蛋白質能擁有的特性、
05:48
the applications
they could be developed for,
they could be developed for,
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用它們能開發出來的應用，
05:50
must be limited by the nature
of those amino acids
of those amino acids
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都會被那些用來製造蛋白質的
胺基酸的自然本質所限制。
胺基酸的自然本質所限制。
05:53
that the protein's built from.
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05:54
So here they are,
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這就是它們，
05:56
the 20 normal amino acids that are
strung together to make a protein,
strung together to make a protein,
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二十種常見胺基酸，
它們結合在一起製造出蛋白質，
它們結合在一起製造出蛋白質，
我想，你們可以看到，
它們看起來沒什麼差別。
它們看起來沒什麼差別。
05:59
and I think you can see,
they're not that different-looking.
they're not that different-looking.
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它們並沒有帶來、
提供許多不同的功能。
提供許多不同的功能。
06:02
They don't bring
that many different functions.
that many different functions.
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06:04
They don't make that many
different functions available.
different functions available.
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將它和合成化學家所製造的
藥物的小分子來做比較。`
藥物的小分子來做比較。`
06:07
Compare that with the small molecules
that synthetic chemists make as drugs.
that synthetic chemists make as drugs.
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這些小分子比蛋白質更簡單許多，
06:10
Now, they're much simpler than proteins,
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但它們是由更多各式各樣的
東西例行建造出來的。
東西例行建造出來的。
06:12
but they're routinely built from
a much broader range of diverse things.
a much broader range of diverse things.
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別擔心分子的細節，
06:16
Don't worry about the molecular details,
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但我想你們能看出它們有多麼不同。
06:18
but I think you can see
how different they are.
how different they are.
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事實上，正是它們的差異，
讓它們成為很棒的藥物，
讓它們成為很棒的藥物，
06:20
And in fact, it's their differences
that make them great drugs
that make them great drugs
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治療不同的疾病。
06:23
to treat different diseases.
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06:24
So it's really provocative to wonder
what sort of new protein drugs
what sort of new protein drugs
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所以，很刺激的地方在於，
不知道什麼樣的新蛋白質藥物
不知道什麼樣的新蛋白質藥物
06:29
you could develop if you could build
proteins from more diverse things.
proteins from more diverse things.
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可以用來自更多樣化來源的
蛋白質開發出來。
蛋白質開發出來。
06:33
So can we get our semisynthetic organism
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我們能否用我們的半合成有機體
06:35
to make proteins that include
new and different amino acids,
new and different amino acids,
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來製造出蛋白質，
且包含不同的新胺基酸，
且包含不同的新胺基酸，
06:39
maybe amino acids
selected to confer the protein
selected to confer the protein
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也許是精選的胺基酸，
來賦予蛋白質
來賦予蛋白質
06:41
with some desired property or function?
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某些我們想要的特性或功能？
06:44
For example,
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比如，
06:45
many proteins just aren't stable
when you inject them into people.
when you inject them into people.
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許多蛋白質在注射到
人體中時，就是不穩定。
人體中時，就是不穩定。
06:49
They are rapidly degraded or eliminated,
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它們很快就會被降解或消除，
06:51
and this stops them from being drugs.
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因此它們無法成為藥物。
06:54
What if we could make proteins
with new amino acids
with new amino acids
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如果我們能用新的
胺基酸來做蛋白質，
胺基酸來做蛋白質，
06:56
with things attached to them
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在它們上面附加一些東西，
06:58
that protect them from their environment,
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保護它們不受環境影響，
07:00
that protect them
from being degraded or eliminated,
from being degraded or eliminated,
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保護它們不被降解或消除，
07:03
so that they could be better drugs?
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讓它們能成為更好的藥物？
07:07
Could we make proteins
with little fingers attached
with little fingers attached
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我們能不能在蛋白質上附加小手指，
07:10
that specifically
grab on to other molecules?
grab on to other molecules?
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用來定位緊抓其他的分子？
07:13
Many small molecules
failed during development as drugs
failed during development as drugs
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也許用小分子來開發藥物時會失敗，
07:16
because they just weren't
specific enough to find their target
specific enough to find their target
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是因為它們不夠明確定位，
無法在人類身體的複雜環境中
找到它們的目標。
找到它們的目標。
07:19
in the complex environment
of the human body.
of the human body.
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07:21
So could we take those molecules
and make them parts of new amino acids
and make them parts of new amino acids
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所以，我們能不能用這些分子
來當作新胺基酸的一些部分，
來當作新胺基酸的一些部分，
07:25
that, when incorporated into a protein,
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當把它們整合到蛋白質中時，
07:27
are guided by that protein
to their target?
to their target?
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該蛋白質就會引導它們找到目標？
07:32
I started a biotech company
called Synthorx.
called Synthorx.
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我創立了一間生技公司，
叫做 Synthorx。
叫做 Synthorx。
07:34
Synthorx stands for synthetic organism
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Synthorx 代表「合成有機體」，
07:36
with an X added at the end because
that's what you do with biotech companies.
that's what you do with biotech companies.
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在最後加上「X」是因為
生技公司都會這樣做。
生技公司都會這樣做。
（笑聲）
07:40
(Laughter)
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07:42
Synthorx is working closely with my lab,
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Synthorx 和我的實驗室密切合作，
07:44
and they're interested in a protein
that recognizes a certain receptor
that recognizes a certain receptor
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他們感興趣的蛋白質，是要能夠認得
人類細胞表面上的某種受體。
07:48
on the surface of human cells.
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07:50
But the problem is that it also recognizes
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但，問題是，它也會認出
07:52
another receptor on the surface
of those same cells,
of those same cells,
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同樣細胞表面上的另一種受體，
07:55
and that makes it toxic.
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那會讓它變成有毒的。
07:57
So could we produce
a variant of that protein
a variant of that protein
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所以，我們能否製造出
那種蛋白質的變體，
那種蛋白質的變體，
07:59
where the part that interacts
with that second bad receptor is shielded,
with that second bad receptor is shielded,
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把會和第二種不良受體
發生作用的那部分給掩蓋起來，
發生作用的那部分給掩蓋起來，
08:04
blocked by something like a big umbrella
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用像大傘樣的東西把它屏蔽掉，
08:06
so that the protein only interacts
with that first good receptor?
with that first good receptor?
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讓蛋白質只會和第一種
好的受體發生作用？
好的受體發生作用？
08:10
Doing that would be really difficult
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用常見的胺基酸會很難
或不可能做到這一點，
或不可能做到這一點，
08:12
or impossible to do
with the normal amino acids,
with the normal amino acids,
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但若用專門為此目的而設計的
胺基酸就不用擔心了。
胺基酸就不用擔心了。
08:14
but not with amino acids that are
specifically designed for that purpose.
specifically designed for that purpose.
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08:20
So getting our semisynthetic cells
to act as little factories
to act as little factories
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所以，讓我們的半合成
細胞扮演小工廠
細胞扮演小工廠
08:23
to produce better protein drugs
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來製造比較好的蛋白質藥物，
並非唯一有趣的應用，
並非唯一有趣的應用，
08:25
isn't the only potentially
really interesting application,
really interesting application,
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因為，切記，是蛋白質
讓細胞實現它們的功能。
讓細胞實現它們的功能。
08:28
because remember, it's the proteins
that allow cells to do what they do.
that allow cells to do what they do.
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08:32
So if we have cells that make
new proteins with new functions,
new proteins with new functions,
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所以，如果有細胞能夠製造出
具有新功能的新蛋白質，
具有新功能的新蛋白質，
08:35
could we get them to do things
that natural cells can't do?
that natural cells can't do?
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我們是否能讓它們做到
自然細胞無法做到的事？
自然細胞無法做到的事？
08:39
For example, could we develop
semisynthetic organisms
semisynthetic organisms
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比如，我們能否開發出
一種半合成有機體，
一種半合成有機體，
08:42
that when injected into a person,
seek out cancer cells
seek out cancer cells
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注射到人體中，去尋找癌細胞，
08:46
and only when they find them,
secrete a toxic protein that kills them?
secrete a toxic protein that kills them?
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只有當找到癌細胞時，
才分泌有毒蛋白質來殺死癌細胞？
才分泌有毒蛋白質來殺死癌細胞？
08:50
Could we create bacteria
that eat different kinds of oil,
that eat different kinds of oil,
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我們能否創造出一種細菌，
能吃掉不同類的油，
能吃掉不同類的油，
08:53
maybe to clean up an oil spill?
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也許能用來清理漏油？
08:55
These are just a couple
of the types of stories
of the types of stories
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上述這些，只是當字彙擴展時
08:57
that we're going to see if life
with an expanded vocabulary can tell.
with an expanded vocabulary can tell.
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生命能訴說的其中幾種故事。
聽起來很棒，對吧？
09:00
So, sounds great, right?
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09:02
Injecting semisynthetic
organisms into people,
organisms into people,
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將半合成有機體注射到人體中，
09:05
dumping millions and millions of gallons
of our bacteria into the ocean
of our bacteria into the ocean
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將數百萬加崙這種細菌倒入海洋中
09:08
or out on your favorite beach?
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或倒在你最愛的海灘上？
09:10
Oh, wait a minute,
actually it sounds really scary.
actually it sounds really scary.
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喔，等等，這聽起來其實挺嚇人的。
09:12
This dinosaur is really scary.
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這隻恐龍挺嚇人的。
09:16
But here's the catch:
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但，有個困難之處：
09:18
our semisynthetic organisms
in order to survive,
in order to survive,
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我們的半合成有機體為了要生存，
09:21
need to be fed the chemical
precursors of X and Y.
precursors of X and Y.
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會需要被餵食 X 和 Y 的化學前體。
09:25
X and Y are completely different
than anything that exists in nature.
than anything that exists in nature.
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X 和 Y 和大自然中存在的
任何東西都完全不同。
任何東西都完全不同。
09:30
Cells just don't have them
or the ability to make them.
or the ability to make them.
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細胞沒有它們，
也沒有能力製造它們。
也沒有能力製造它們。
09:33
So when we prepare them,
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所以，當我們在實驗室內
受控環境中製造出它們時，
受控環境中製造出它們時，
09:34
when we grow them up
in the controlled environment of the lab,
in the controlled environment of the lab,
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我們可以餵食它們
很多非天然的食物。
很多非天然的食物。
09:37
we can feed them
lots of the unnatural food.
lots of the unnatural food.
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接著，當我們把它們部署到
人體中或外面的海灘上，
人體中或外面的海灘上，
09:39
Then, when we deploy them
in a person or out on a beach
in a person or out on a beach
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09:43
where they no longer
have access that special food,
have access that special food,
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在那些地方，它們無法
取得特別的食物，
取得特別的食物，
09:46
they can grow for a little bit,
they can survive for a little,
they can survive for a little,
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它們可以成長一點點，
它們可以生存一會兒，
它們可以生存一會兒，
09:49
maybe just long enough
to perform some intended function,
to perform some intended function,
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也許還夠長，足以執行
一些我們希望的功能，
一些我們希望的功能，
09:52
but then they start
to run out of the food.
to run out of the food.
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但接著，它們就沒有食物可吃了。
09:54
They start to starve.
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它們會開始挨餓。
09:56
They starve to death
and they just disappear.
and they just disappear.
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它們會餓死，然後消失。
09:59
So not only could we get life
to tell new stories,
to tell new stories,
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所以，我們不只能
讓生命說新的故事，
讓生命說新的故事，
10:01
we get to tell life when and where
to tell those stories.
to tell those stories.
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我們也能控制生命
何時何地說新的故事。
何時何地說新的故事。
10:07
At the beginning of this talk
I told you that we reported in 2014
I told you that we reported in 2014
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在這場演說的一開始，
我告訴各位我們在 2014 年
我告訴各位我們在 2014 年
10:10
the creation of semisynthetic organisms
that store more information,
that store more information,
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創造出了半合成有機體，
能儲存更多資訊，
能儲存更多資訊，
10:13
X and Y, in their DNA.
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將 X 和 Y 存在它們的 DNA 中。
10:16
But all the motivations
that we just talked about
that we just talked about
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但我們剛剛談到的所有動機，
10:18
require cells to use X and Y
to make proteins,
to make proteins,
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都需要細胞能夠使用
X 和 Y 來製造蛋白質，
X 和 Y 來製造蛋白質，
10:20
so we started working on that.
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所以我們開始處理這一點。
10:23
Within a couple years, we showed
that the cells could take DNA with X and Y
that the cells could take DNA with X and Y
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在幾年內，我們證明了
細胞能夠把有 X 和 Y 的 DNA
細胞能夠把有 X 和 Y 的 DNA
10:27
and copy it into RNA,
the working copy of DNA.
the working copy of DNA.
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複製到 RNA，
也就是 DNA 的工作用複本。
10:31
And late last year,
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去年底，
10:33
we showed that they could then
use X and Y to make proteins.
use X and Y to make proteins.
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我們證明了它們接著還可以
用 X 和 Y 來製造蛋白質。
用 X 和 Y 來製造蛋白質。
10:36
Here they are, the stars of the show,
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這就是它們，今天節目的大明星，
10:39
the first fully-functional
semisynthetic organisms.
semisynthetic organisms.
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史上最早能夠完全
運作的半合成有機體。
運作的半合成有機體。
10:43
(Applause)
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（掌聲）
10:50
These cells are green because
they're making a protein that glows green.
they're making a protein that glows green.
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這些細胞是綠色的，因為它們會
製造出一種發綠光的蛋白質。
製造出一種發綠光的蛋白質。
10:53
It's a pretty famous protein,
actually, from jellyfish
actually, from jellyfish
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事實上，這種蛋白質很有名，
來自水母，
10:56
that a lot of people use
in its natural form
in its natural form
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很多人會使用它的天然形式，
10:58
because it's easy to see that you made it.
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因為這樣很容易可以
看出你製造出它了。
看出你製造出它了。
11:01
But within every one of these proteins,
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但，在所有這些蛋白質中，
11:03
there's a new amino acid that
natural life can't build proteins with.
natural life can't build proteins with.
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有一種新的胺基酸，
自然生命無法用它來製造蛋白質。
11:09
Every living cell, every living cell ever,
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所有的活細胞，史上所有的活細胞，
11:14
has made every one of its proteins
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不論是製造哪一種蛋白質，
11:16
using a four-letter genetic alphabet.
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都是用四個基因字母來製造的。
11:19
These cells are living and growing
and making protein
and making protein
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這些細胞是活的，會成長，
11:23
with a six-letter alphabet.
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還會製造出六個字母的蛋白質。
11:25
These are a new form of life.
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它們是新的生命形式。
11:28
This is a semisynthetic form of life.
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這是一種半合成的生命形式。
11:31
So what about the future?
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那，未來呢？
11:33
My lab is already working on expanding
the genetic alphabet of other cells,
the genetic alphabet of other cells,
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我的實驗室已經在努力擴展
其他細胞的基因字母，
其他細胞的基因字母，
包括人類細胞，
11:37
including human cells,
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11:38
and we're getting ready to start working
on more complex organisms.
on more complex organisms.
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且我們已經準備好要開始
投入更複雜的有機體。
投入更複雜的有機體。
11:42
Think semisynthetic worms.
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想想半合成的蟲。
11:45
The last thing I want to say to you,
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我想要告訴各位的最後一件事，
11:47
the most important thing
that I want to say to you,
that I want to say to you,
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也是我想告訴各位的事
當中最重要的，
當中最重要的，
11:49
is that the time
of semisynthetic life is here.
of semisynthetic life is here.
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就是：半合成生命的
時代已經到來。
時代已經到來。
11:52
Thank you.
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謝謝。
11:54
(Applause)
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（掌聲）
（掌聲結束）
12:05
Chris Anderson: I mean,
Floyd, this is so remarkable.
Floyd, this is so remarkable.
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克里斯安德森：佛洛伊德，
這真是了不起。
這真是了不起。
12:08
I just wanted to ask you,
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我只是想要問你，
12:10
what are the implications of your work
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你的研究有什麼意涵？
12:13
for how we should think
about the possibilities for life,
about the possibilities for life,
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我們該如何看待生命的可能性，
12:17
like, in the universe, elsewhere?
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比如，在宇宙中，其他地方？
12:19
It just seems like so much of life,
or so much of our assumptions are based
or so much of our assumptions are based
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感覺就是，生命有好大一部分，
或是說我們的假設有好大一部分
或是說我們的假設有好大一部分
12:23
on the fact that of course,
it's got to be DNA,
it's got to be DNA,
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是立基在這個事實上：
它必須是 DNA，
它必須是 DNA，
12:26
but is the possibility space
of self-replicating molecules
of self-replicating molecules
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但，自我複製分子的可能性空間
12:30
much bigger than DNA,
even just DNA with six letters?
even just DNA with six letters?
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是否比 DNA 大很多，
甚至只是六個字母的 DNA？
甚至只是六個字母的 DNA？
12:33
Floyd Romesberg:
Absolutely, I think that's right,
Absolutely, I think that's right,
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佛洛伊德：是的，我認為沒錯。
且我認為，我們的研究顯示，
12:36
and I think what our work has shown,
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如我先前提過的，
一直以來都有一種偏見存在，
一直以來都有一種偏見存在，
12:38
as I mentioned, is that
there's been always this prejudice
there's been always this prejudice
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12:41
that sort of we're perfect,
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認為我們是完美的，
12:43
we're optimal, God created us this way,
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我們是最理想化的，
神把我們創造成這樣，
神把我們創造成這樣，
12:45
evolution perfected us this way.
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演化把我們變成這麼完美。
12:47
We've made molecules that work
right alongside the natural ones,
right alongside the natural ones,
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我們做出的分子能夠
和天然分子並存，
和天然分子並存，
12:52
and I think that suggests
that any molecules
that any molecules
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我認為那意味著任何分子
12:55
that obey the fundamental laws
of chemistry and physics
of chemistry and physics
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只要能遵守化學和物理的基本原理，
12:58
and you can optimize them
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且能將它們最佳化，
12:59
could do the things that
the natural molecules of life do.
the natural molecules of life do.
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那它們就能夠做到生命的
天然分子能做到的事。
天然分子能做到的事。
13:02
There's nothing magic there.
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這不是什麼魔法。
13:04
And I think that it suggests
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我認為，那意味著，
生命演化的方式有很多種，
生命演化的方式有很多種，
13:05
that life could evolve
many different ways,
many different ways,
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13:07
maybe similar to us
with other types of DNA,
with other types of DNA,
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也許類似於我們擁有
其他種 DNA 的人，
其他種 DNA 的人，
13:10
maybe things without DNA at all.
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也許完全沒有 DNA 的東西。
13:13
CA: I mean, in your mind,
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克：在你心中，
13:14
how big might that possibility space be?
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那可能性空間有多大？
13:17
Do we even know? Are most things going
to look something like a DNA molecule,
to look something like a DNA molecule,
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我們知道嗎？大部分的東西
都會看起來像 DNA 分子？
都會看起來像 DNA 分子？
13:21
or something radically different
that can still self-reproduce
that can still self-reproduce
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或是非常不同的東西
也能夠自我繁殖，
也能夠自我繁殖，
13:24
and potentially create living organisms?
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且有可能創造出活的有機體？
13:26
FR: My personal opinion
is that if we found new life,
is that if we found new life,
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佛：我個人的意見是，
如果我們找到新生命，
如果我們找到新生命，
13:28
we might not even recognize it.
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我們可能也不會認出它。
13:31
CA: So this obsession
with the search for Goldilocks planets
with the search for Goldilocks planets
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克：所以，這種對於
尋找適居帶行星的迷戀，
尋找適居帶行星的迷戀，
13:34
in exactly the right place
with water and whatever,
with water and whatever,
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一定要找到有水和其他東西的地方，
13:36
that's a very parochial
assumption, perhaps.
assumption, perhaps.
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也許這樣的假設太狹礙了。
13:38
FR: Well, if you want to find someone
you can talk to, then maybe not,
you can talk to, then maybe not,
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佛：如果你想要找到能說話的人，
也許這假設不算狹礙，
也許這假設不算狹礙，
13:42
but I think that if you're just
looking for any form of life,
looking for any form of life,
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但如果你是要找到任何形式的生命，
13:45
I think that's right, I think that you're
looking for life under the light post.
looking for life under the light post.
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那，沒錯，我想是太狹隘了，
你只想在容易找的地方找。
你只想在容易找的地方找。
13:49
CA: Thank you for boggling all our minds.
Thank so much, Floyd.
Thank so much, Floyd.
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克：謝謝你帶來這些驚喜。
非常謝謝，佛洛伊德。
非常謝謝，佛洛伊德。
13:52
(Applause)
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（掌聲）
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Floyd E. Romesberg - Chemist, synthetic biologistFloyd E. Romesberg uses chemistry, biology and physics to study how biomolecules work and to create biomolecules with new forms and functions.
Why you should listen
Floyd E. Romesberg is the director of a talented team of researchers at The Scripps Research Institute who are working to understand how evolution tailors protein function, to develop novel antibiotics and aptamers and to expand on the potential of evolution through the expansion of the genetic alphabet. A chemist by training, Romesberg works beyond the traditional divides between scientific disciplines.
Since the last common ancestor of all life on earth, biological information has been stored in a four-letter alphabet consisting of G, A, T and C. In 1998, Romesberg wondered: Is DNA limited to four letters? The answer is a resounding "No!" Romesberg and his research group have designed, tested and optimized hundreds of unnatural DNA letters, and they have achieved impressive milestones including replication and amplification of six-letter DNA in a test tube; the use of six-letter DNA to produce novel materials; and most recently the creation of semi-synthetic life that stores and retrieves the increased information. The advances led to Romesberg founding Synthorx, Inc., a biotechnology company that uses the expanded genetic alphabet to develop novel protein therapeutics.
Floyd E. Romesberg | Speaker | TED.com