TEDGlobal 2011
Allan Jones: A map of the brain
艾伦·琼斯： 大脑的地图
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我们是怎样开始了解大脑是如何工作的呢？和我们开始了解一个城市的方式一样：制作一张地图。在这个非常形象化的演讲中，艾伦·琼斯展示了他的团队是怎样绘制每个小区域里开启的基因，并展示了它们是怎样相互连接的。
Allan Jones - Brain scientist
As CEO of the Allen Institute for Brain Science, Allan Jones leads an ambitious project to build an open, online, interactive atlas of the human brain. Full bio
As CEO of the Allen Institute for Brain Science, Allan Jones leads an ambitious project to build an open, online, interactive atlas of the human brain. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:15
Humans have long held a fascination
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人类长时间的着迷于
00:17
for the human brain.
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人类的大脑。
00:19
We chart it, we've described it,
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我们讨论它，描述它。
00:22
we've drawn it,
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我们已经画出了它。
00:24
we've mapped it.
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我们已经把它地图化了。
00:27
Now just like the physical maps of our world
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现在，就像我们现实中的地图
00:30
that have been highly influenced by technology --
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被科技高度影响着——
00:33
think Google Maps,
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比如谷歌地图，
00:35
think GPS --
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比如全球定位系统，
00:37
the same thing is happening for brain mapping
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和它们一样，我们的大脑地图也在
00:39
through transformation.
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经历变革。
00:41
So let's take a look at the brain.
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让我们来看一看大脑。
00:43
Most people, when they first look at a fresh human brain,
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大多数人，当他们第一次看到新鲜的人脑时，
00:46
they say, "It doesn't look what you're typically looking at
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他们会说，“它看起来和一般
00:49
when someone shows you a brain."
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别人展现给我们的大脑不一样。”
00:51
Typically, what you're looking at is a fixed brain. It's gray.
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一般，你以前看到的大脑是一个固定了的大脑。它是灰白色的。
00:54
And this outer layer, this is the vasculature,
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这是大脑的外层，这是脉管系统。
00:56
which is incredible, around a human brain.
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它们不可思议的围绕着人类的大脑。
00:58
This is the blood vessels.
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这是血管。
01:00
20 percent of the oxygen
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含有20%
01:03
coming from your lungs,
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由肺部供应的氧气。
01:05
20 percent of the blood pumped from your heart,
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你的心脏产生的20%的血液
01:07
is servicing this one organ.
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都用来供应大脑这一个器官。
01:09
That's basically, if you hold two fists together,
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如果你握住你的两个拳头，它基本上
01:11
it's just slightly larger than the two fists.
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只比你的两个拳头大一点。
01:13
Scientists, sort of at the end of the 20th century,
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科学家们在大约20世纪晚期的时候
01:16
learned that they could track blood flow
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发现他们可以通过非侵入式的方法
01:18
to map non-invasively
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来追踪血液的流动
01:21
where activity was going on in the human brain.
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从而绘制出在人类大脑里活动进行的区域图。
01:24
So for example, they can see in the back part of the brain,
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举个例子，他们可以看到大脑后面的那一部分，
01:27
which is just turning around there.
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就是刚刚转过来的这里。
01:29
There's the cerebellum; that's keeping you upright right now.
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这里是小脑，它使你现在能保持正确的直立。
01:31
It's keeping me standing. It's involved in coordinated movement.
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它使得我能站在这里。它是一个相互协调的活动中的一部分。
01:34
On the side here, this is temporal cortex.
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在侧面这里的是颞叶皮层。
01:37
This is the area where primary auditory processing --
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我们听到的东西在这里被初级加工，
01:40
so you're hearing my words,
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所以你现在可以听见我说的话
01:42
you're sending it up into higher language processing centers.
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你正在把刚才听到的话传送到更高级的语言处理中心。
01:44
Towards the front of the brain
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在大脑的前方这里
01:46
is the place in which all of the more complex thought, decision making --
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是产生所有复杂的思想，作出决定的地方，
01:49
it's the last to mature in late adulthood.
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它是最后成熟的地方，在我们到了成年期后期的时候。
01:53
This is where all your decision-making processes are going on.
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这是你所有决策过程正在进行的地方。
01:56
It's the place where you're deciding right now
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这是你正在进行决定的地方，
01:58
you probably aren't going to order the steak for dinner.
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你或许不会点一份牛排作为晚餐。
02:01
So if you take a deeper look at the brain,
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所以如果你更深入地看看大脑，
02:03
one of the things, if you look at it in cross-section,
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其中一部分，如果你看它的横截面，
02:05
what you can see
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你能发现的是
02:07
is that you can't really see a whole lot of structure there.
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你不能真正地看到整个的，大部分的大脑结构。
02:10
But there's actually a lot of structure there.
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但是大脑里确实有很多结构。
02:12
It's cells and it's wires all wired together.
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它的细胞和它的神经线全部都连接在一起。
02:14
So about a hundred years ago,
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所以在几百年前，
02:16
some scientists invented a stain that would stain cells.
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一些科学家发明了一种染色剂可以将细胞染色。
02:18
And that's shown here in the the very light blue.
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这里淡蓝色显示的就是。
02:21
You can see areas
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你可以看到这些地方
02:23
where neuronal cell bodies are being stained.
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正常的细胞体被染色了。
02:25
And what you can see is it's very non-uniform. You see a lot more structure there.
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你可以看到它是非常不均一的，你可以看到有很多的结构。
02:28
So the outer part of that brain
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在大脑外层部分
02:30
is the neocortex.
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是新大脑皮层。
02:32
It's one continuous processing unit, if you will.
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如果你愿意的话，它是一个可以连续处理的部件。
02:35
But you can also see things underneath there as well.
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但是你可以看到在那之下的东西也是。
02:37
And all of these blank areas
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所有的这些空白区域
02:39
are the areas in which the wires are running through.
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是所有脑神经线路穿过的地方。
02:41
They're probably less cell dense.
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这些地方的细胞密度或许会低一些。
02:43
So there's about 86 billion neurons in our brain.
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我们的大脑中大约有860亿神经元。
02:47
And as you can see, they're very non-uniformly distributed.
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正如你所见，它们的分布很不均一。
02:50
And how they're distributed really contributes
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而它们的分布正好构成了
02:52
to their underlying function.
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它们潜在的功能。
02:54
And of course, as I mentioned before,
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当然，正如我之前所提到，
02:56
since we can now start to map brain function,
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我们现在可以开始绘制大脑功能地图了。
02:59
we can start to tie these into the individual cells.
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我们可以开始将这些功能嵌入每一个独立的细胞。
03:02
So let's take a deeper look.
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让我们来更深入地观察一下。
03:04
Let's look at neurons.
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看那些神经元。
03:06
So as I mentioned, there are 86 billion neurons.
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正如我刚才提到的，这里有860亿神经元。
03:08
There are also these smaller cells as you'll see.
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还有一些你现在看到的小细胞。
03:10
These are support cells -- astrocytes glia.
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它们是支持细胞——星形神经胶质细胞。
03:12
And the nerves themselves
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而且神经本身
03:15
are the ones who are receiving input.
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是接收输入信息的。
03:17
They're storing it, they're processing it.
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它们存储信息，它们加工信息。
03:19
Each neuron is connected via synapses
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每一个神经元是由突触
03:23
to up to 10,000 other neurons in your brain.
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与你大脑中其他10000个神经元相连接的。
03:26
And each neuron itself
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而且每个神经元本身
03:28
is largely unique.
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大部分是独特的。
03:30
The unique character of both individual neurons
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独立的神经元和大脑里一系列的神经元
03:32
and neurons within a collection of the brain
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的独特特性
03:34
are driven by fundamental properties
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是由它们潜在的基本化学生物性能
03:37
of their underlying biochemistry.
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所驱使的。
03:39
These are proteins.
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就是蛋白质。
03:41
They're proteins that are controlling things like ion channel movement.
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蛋白质控制着像离子移动通道这样的事情。
03:44
They're controlling who nervous system cells partner up with.
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它们控制着神经系统各细胞相联系的部分。
03:48
And they're controlling
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而且它们还控制着
03:50
basically everything that the nervous system has to do.
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基本上与神经系统相有关的一切事。
03:52
So if we zoom in to an even deeper level,
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所以当我们更加深入地去观察
03:55
all of those proteins
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所有的这些蛋白质
03:57
are encoded by our genomes.
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都被我们的基因组编码了。
03:59
We each have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
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我们每个人都有23对染色体。
04:02
We get one from mom, one from dad.
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我们从母亲那继承一半，从父亲那继承一半。
04:04
And on these chromosomes
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而且在这些染色体上
04:06
are roughly 25,000 genes.
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大约有25000个基因。
04:08
They're encoded in the DNA.
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它们在DNA中被译成编码。
04:10
And the nature of a given cell
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一个特定细胞的天性
04:13
driving its underlying biochemistry
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操纵着它潜在的生物化学性能
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is dictated by which of these 25,000 genes
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这个天性由这25000
04:18
are turned on
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启动的基因
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and at what level they're turned on.
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和他们启动的级别所指示。
04:22
And so our project
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所以我们的项目
04:24
is seeking to look at this readout,
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是寻找这个读出器，
04:27
understanding which of these 25,000 genes is turned on.
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并理解这25000个基因中哪些被启动了。
04:30
So in order to undertake such a project,
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所以为了进行这样的一个项目，
04:33
we obviously need brains.
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我们明显需要大脑。
04:36
So we sent our lab technician out.
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所以我们派实验室技术员外出。
04:39
We were seeking normal human brains.
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我们寻找正常的人类大脑。
04:41
What we actually start with
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我们真正开始的地方是
04:43
is a medical examiner's office.
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一个验尸员的办公室。
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This a place where the dead are brought in.
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那是个死人被带去的地方。
04:47
We are seeking normal human brains.
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我们寻找的是正常的人类大脑。
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There's a lot of criteria by which we're selecting these brains.
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我们根据许多参考数据来选的大脑
04:52
We want to make sure
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我们希望确保
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that we have normal humans between the ages of 20 to 60,
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我们得到的大脑是20到60岁正常人的大脑，
04:57
they died a somewhat natural death
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他们是自然死亡的
04:59
with no injury to the brain,
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大脑没有受到损伤，
05:01
no history of psychiatric disease,
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他们不能有精神病史，
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no drugs on board --
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我们会做毒性检查确保他们
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we do a toxicology workup.
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没有滥用药物的历史。
05:07
And we're very careful
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我们对我们所选取的大脑
05:09
about the brains that we do take.
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非常小心。
05:11
We're also selecting for brains
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我们也选取那些
05:13
in which we can get the tissue,
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我们可以得到脑组织的大脑。
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we can get consent to take the tissue
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我们得得到同意去提取
05:17
within 24 hours of time of death.
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24小时内死亡的人的大脑的脑组织。
05:19
Because what we're trying to measure, the RNA --
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因为我们试图要去测量的东西——RNA核糖核酸
05:22
which is the readout from our genes --
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就是我们基因里的读出器--
05:24
is very labile,
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是非常易变的。
05:26
and so we have to move very quickly.
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所以我们必须要快速行动。
05:28
One side note on the collection of brains:
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在收集大脑上有一点要提示：
05:31
because of the way that we collect,
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因为我们收集的方式，
05:33
and because we require consent,
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并且需要许可
05:35
we actually have a lot more male brains than female brains.
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所以我们事实上得到的男性大脑比女性大脑多。
05:38
Males are much more likely to die an accidental death in the prime of their life.
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男性更有可能在他们生命的青壮年时期意外死亡。
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And men are much more likely
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男性的家友，他的配偶
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to have their significant other, spouse, give consent
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更加容易给我们许可。
05:46
than the other way around.
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相比之下，反过来，女性的配偶很少给我们许可。
05:48
(Laughter)
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笑声
05:52
So the first thing that we do at the site of collection
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我们在采集地点做的第一件事
05:54
is we collect what's called an MR.
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是收集我们所说的核磁共振——MR。
05:56
This is magnetic resonance imaging -- MRI.
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这是核磁共振成像-MRI。
05:58
It's a standard template by which we're going to hang the rest of this data.
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它是一个标准的模版，通过它我们可以留住其他的数据。
06:01
So we collect this MR.
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所以我们收集这个MR
06:03
And you can think of this as our satellite view for our map.
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你可以把这个当做是我们地图的卫星图。
06:05
The next thing we do
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接下来我们要做的事
06:07
is we collect what's called a diffusion tensor imaging.
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是收集叫做弥散张量成像的东西。
06:10
This maps the large cabling in the brain.
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这张地图是在大脑中连接的大量神经。
06:12
And again, you can think of this
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再次重申，如果你愿意你可以把这想象成
06:14
as almost mapping our interstate highways, if you will.
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和制作我们的洲际间高速公路地图一样。
06:16
The brain is removed from the skull,
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这个大脑是从头盖骨上分离的
06:18
and then it's sliced into one-centimeter slices.
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然后把它切成一厘米的薄片。
06:21
And those are frozen solid,
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那些是冷冻的固体，
06:23
and they're shipped to Seattle.
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然后它们被运到西雅图。
06:25
And in Seattle, we take these --
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在西雅图，我们拿这个
06:27
this is a whole human hemisphere --
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这是一个完整的人脑的半球体
06:29
and we put them into what's basically a glorified meat slicer.
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我们把它放进一个基本是改造过的肉类切片机。
06:31
There's a blade here that's going to cut across
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这有一个刀片可以切
06:33
a section of the tissue
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大脑脑组织的一部分
06:35
and transfer it to a microscope slide.
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并转换成一个显微镜载片。
06:37
We're going to then apply one of those stains to it,
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我们将会对它进行着色
06:39
and we scan it.
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并扫描它。
06:41
And then what we get is our first mapping.
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然后我们就得到了第一副地图。
06:44
So this is where experts come in
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专家就是从这里入手
06:46
and they make basic anatomic assignments.
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并制作基本的解剖作业。
06:48
You could consider this state boundaries, if you will,
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如果你愿意你可以思考州的边界，
06:51
those pretty broad outlines.
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那些漂亮宽阔的轮廓。
06:53
From this, we're able to then fragment that brain into further pieces,
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从这开始我们可以更进一步把大脑切成碎片
06:57
which then we can put on a smaller cryostat.
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使它可以放在一个更小的低温恒温器上。
06:59
And this is just showing this here --
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就是这里展示的这个--
07:01
this frozen tissue, and it's being cut.
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这个冷冻过的脑组织，它正在被切割。
07:03
This is 20 microns thin, so this is about a baby hair's width.
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这是20微米的厚度，大约和婴儿的头发一样粗。
07:06
And remember, it's frozen.
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记住，它是冷冻的
07:08
And so you can see here,
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所以你可以看到
07:10
old-fashioned technology of the paintbrush being applied.
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古老的笔刷技术正在被应用。
07:12
We take a microscope slide.
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我们拿一个显微镜载片。
07:14
Then we very carefully melt onto the slide.
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然后我们非常小心的让它融化在载片上。
07:17
This will then go onto a robot
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然后它会被送到一个机器人那
07:19
that's going to apply one of those stains to it.
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在那它会被涂上那些染色剂中的一种。
07:26
And our anatomists are going to go in and take a deeper look at this.
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我们的解剖学家们这时候会进入并且更深入的了解它们。
07:29
So again this is what they can see under the microscope.
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这是他们在显微镜下看到的景象。
07:31
You can see collections and configurations
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你可以在聚集群和不同区域看到
07:33
of large and small cells
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大大小小的细胞
07:35
in clusters and various places.
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聚集和结构。
07:37
And from there it's routine. They understand where to make these assignments.
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这是一个程序，他们知道哪里去完成这些作业。
07:39
And they can make basically what's a reference atlas.
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而且他们可以制作基本上所涉及到的地图集。
07:42
This is a more detailed map.
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这是一个更详细的地图。
07:44
Our scientists then use this
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我们的科学家用这个
07:46
to go back to another piece of that tissue
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返回到另一片大脑组织上
07:49
and do what's called laser scanning microdissection.
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并且做激光扫描纤维解剖。
07:51
So the technician takes the instructions.
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所以技术人员得到指令。
07:54
They scribe along a place there.
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他们沿着那的一个地方划线。
07:56
And then the laser actually cuts.
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然后激光真的做切割。
07:58
You can see that blue dot there cutting. And that tissue falls off.
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你可以看到正在切割的蓝点，然后那片脑组织脱落。
08:01
You can see on the microscope slide here,
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你可以看到在显微镜载片这里，
08:03
that's what's happening in real time.
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现在正在立即发生的事。
08:05
There's a container underneath that's collecting that tissue.
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这有一个容器在下面收集这些脑组织。
08:08
We take that tissue,
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我们用一些基本的技术，
08:10
we purify the RNA out of it
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从这些脑组织里
08:12
using some basic technology,
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净化出RNA
08:14
and then we put a florescent tag on it.
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然后我们放一个荧光标签在上面。
08:16
We take that tagged material
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我们拿标记过的材料
08:18
and we put it on to something called a microarray.
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然后我们把它放在一些叫做微阵列芯片的东西上。
08:21
Now this may look like a bunch of dots to you,
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现在你可能认为你看到的是一群圆点，
08:23
but each one of these individual dots
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但是事实上每一个独立的小点
08:25
is actually a unique piece of the human genome
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都是一片我们点在玻璃片上的
08:27
that we spotted down on glass.
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独特的人类基因组。
08:29
This has roughly 60,000 elements on it,
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它大约含有60000个元素在上面，
08:32
so we repeatedly measure various genes
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所以我们反复地测量基因组25000个基因中
08:35
of the 25,000 genes in the genome.
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各种各样的基因。
08:37
And when we take a sample and we hybridize it to it,
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当我们得到一个样本而且我们让它与玻璃片吻合
08:40
we get a unique fingerprint, if you will,
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我们得到一个独特的指纹，
08:42
quantitatively of what genes are turned on in that sample.
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如果你愿意那个例子里的大量的基因都会开启。
08:45
Now we do this over and over again,
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现在我们一遍一遍地做这件事，
08:47
this process for any given brain.
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对任何得到的大脑。
08:50
We're taking over a thousand samples for each brain.
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我们从一个大脑上可以得到一千个样本。
08:53
This area shown here is an area called the hippocampus.
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这里显示的这个区域是大脑海马区。
08:56
It's involved in learning and memory.
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它牵扯到学习和记忆。
08:58
And it contributes to about 70 samples
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它可以贡献1000个样本中的
09:01
of those thousand samples.
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大约70个样本。
09:03
So each sample gets us about 50,000 data points
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每个样本给我们50000个数据点
09:07
with repeat measurements, a thousand samples.
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使用重复测量得到一千个样本。
09:10
So roughly, we have 50 million data points
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所以大约我们有 5千万数据点
09:12
for a given human brain.
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从一个贡献的脑中得到。
09:14
We've done right now
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我们现在完成了
09:16
two human brains-worth of data.
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从两个人类大脑所获得的数据。
09:18
We've put all of that together
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我们把所有的这些放在一起
09:20
into one thing,
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在一个东西里，
09:22
and I'll show you what that synthesis looks like.
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我将向你展示这个综合体看起来是什么样子的。
09:24
It's basically a large data set of information
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它基本上是一个大的信息数据集
09:27
that's all freely available to any scientist around the world.
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世界上任何的科学家都可以免费得到里面的数据。
09:30
They don't even have to log in to come use this tool,
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他们甚至都不用登陆来使用这个工具，
09:33
mine this data, find interesting things out with this.
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开采这些数据，从其中找出更多有趣的东西。
09:37
So here's the modalities that we put together.
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所以这是我们把这些放在一起的模型。
09:40
You'll start to recognize these things from what we've collected before.
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你从我们之前收集的数据开始了解这些事情。
09:43
Here's the MR. It provides the framework.
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这是磁共振。它提供一个框架。
09:45
There's an operator side on the right that allows you to turn,
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这里左边有一个操纵杆可以让你扳动。
09:48
it allows you to zoom in,
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它可以帮你放大，
09:50
it allows you to highlight individual structures.
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它可以帮你标记独立的结构。
09:53
But most importantly,
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最重要的是
09:55
we're now mapping into this anatomic framework,
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我们现在正在绘制地图的这个解剖学上的框架，
09:58
which is a common framework for people to understand where genes are turned on.
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它是我们通常所理解的基因启动的地方。
10:01
So the red levels
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所以红色的级别
10:03
are where a gene is turned on to a great degree.
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是基因开启到一个良好的级别。
10:05
Green is the sort of cool areas where it's not turned on.
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绿色的是稍稍有些不活跃的地方，它没有被启动。
10:08
And each gene gives us a fingerprint.
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每一个基因都给我们一个指纹。
10:10
And remember that we've assayed all the 25,000 genes in the genome
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记住我们已经化验了所有25000个基因组中的基因
10:15
and have all of that data available.
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并且用所有的可用数据。
10:19
So what can scientists learn about this data?
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所以我们的科学家从这些数据中学到了什么呢？
10:21
We're just starting to look at this data ourselves.
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我们自己仅仅开始看这些数据
10:24
There's some basic things that you would want to understand.
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有一些基本的你想了解的东西
10:27
Two great examples are drugs,
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药品中有两个很好的例子，
10:29
Prozac and Wellbutrin.
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百忧解和安非他酮。
10:31
These are commonly prescribed antidepressants.
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它们都是通常规定的抗抑郁类药物。
10:34
Now remember, we're assaying genes.
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现在记住，我们正在化验基因。
10:36
Genes send the instructions to make proteins.
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基因发送指令来合成蛋白质。
10:39
Proteins are targets for drugs.
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蛋白质是药物的目标。
10:41
So drugs bind to proteins
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所以药物和蛋白质是捆绑在一起的
10:43
and either turn them off, etc.
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把它们其中的一个去掉，等等
10:45
So if you want to understand the action of drugs,
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如果你想去理解药物的行动，
10:47
you want to understand how they're acting in the ways you want them to,
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你想要理解它们有没有按照你想要它们行动的方式
10:50
and also in the ways you don't want them to.
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和不想让它们行动的方式运行。
10:52
In the side effect profile, etc.,
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在副作用方面等
10:54
you want to see where those genes are turned on.
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你想明白那些基因在哪儿可以开启。
10:56
And for the first time, we can actually do that.
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第一次我们可以确确实实做到。
10:58
We can do that in multiple individuals that we've assayed too.
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我们可以做到成倍的个体我们也可以化验。
11:01
So now we can look throughout the brain.
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所以现在我们可以看透大脑。
11:04
We can see this unique fingerprint.
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我们可以看到这独特的指纹。
11:06
And we get confirmation.
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我们得到确认
11:08
We get confirmation that, indeed, the gene is turned on --
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我们确实确认基因
11:11
for something like Prozac,
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可以为一些类似百忧解的东西打开
11:13
in serotonergic structures, things that are already known be affected --
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这些东西含血清素的结构，这些东西已经知道是可以起作用的
11:16
but we also get to see the whole thing.
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但是我们还没有看到整个事情的全部。
11:18
We also get to see areas that no one has ever looked at before,
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我们还有机会看了一些以前从来没有人看到过的区域，
11:20
and we see these genes turned on there.
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我们看到这些基因在那些地方启动。
11:22
It's as interesting a side effect as it could be.
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这是一个非常非常有趣的副作用。
11:25
One other thing you can do with such a thing
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另一个你可以这样做的原因是
11:27
is you can, because it's a pattern matching exercise,
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因为它是一个联系的匹配模型，
11:30
because there's unique fingerprint,
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因为有独特的指纹，
11:32
we can actually scan through the entire genome
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我们可以确确实实地扫描整个基因组
11:34
and find other proteins
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并发现其他的蛋白质
11:36
that show a similar fingerprint.
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显示同样的指纹。
11:38
So if you're in drug discovery, for example,
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举个例子，如果你是在研究药物，
11:41
you can go through
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你可以浏览
11:43
an entire listing of what the genome has on offer
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整个已经提供的基因组列表
11:45
to find perhaps better drug targets and optimize.
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来发现更好的药物目标并优化。
11:49
Most of you are probably familiar
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你们大部分人可能对基因组协会的研究
11:51
with genome-wide association studies
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非常熟悉
11:53
in the form of people covering in the news
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以人们通常在新闻中看到的形式：
11:56
saying, "Scientists have recently discovered the gene or genes
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科学家们最近发现了影响X染色体
11:59
which affect X."
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的基因。
12:01
And so these kinds of studies
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这一类的研究
12:03
are routinely published by scientists
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被科学家们例行公事的颁布
12:05
and they're great. They analyze large populations.
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他们很棒。他们分析了大量的人口。
12:07
They look at their entire genomes,
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他们着眼于他们整个的基因组，
12:09
and they try to find hot spots of activity
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他们试图找出
12:11
that are linked causally to genes.
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与基因有原因关连的这些活跃热点。
12:14
But what you get out of such an exercise
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但是你从这些试验中得到的
12:16
is simply a list of genes.
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只是简单的基因列表。
12:18
It tells you the what, but it doesn't tell you the where.
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它可以告诉你是什么但是没法让你知道在哪。
12:21
And so it's very important for those researchers
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所以对那些研究员来说我们发现的这些资源
12:24
that we've created this resource.
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是非常重要的。
12:26
Now they can come in
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现在他们可以来我们这
12:28
and they can start to get clues about activity.
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并得到开始活动的线索。
12:30
They can start to look at common pathways --
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他们可以开始考虑通常的途径——
12:32
other things that they simply haven't been able to do before.
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其他的以前他们没有办法做到的途径。
12:36
So I think this audience in particular
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所以我想这些特别的观众
12:39
can understand the importance of individuality.
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可以理解个性的重要性。
12:42
And I think every human,
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我认为每一个人，
12:44
we all have different genetic backgrounds,
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我们都有不同的遗传的背景，
12:48
we all have lived separate lives.
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我们都有各自的生活。
12:50
But the fact is
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但是事实是
12:52
our genomes are greater than 99 percent similar.
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我们的基因组有超过99%的都是一样的。
12:55
We're similar at the genetic level.
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我们在遗传的级别上是一样的。
12:58
And what we're finding
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我们发现的事实是
13:00
is actually, even at the brain biochemical level,
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甚至在大脑的生物化学级别上
13:02
we are quite similar.
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我们都是非常相似的。
13:04
And so this shows it's not 99 percent,
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所以这显示它不是99%
13:06
but it's roughly 90 percent correspondence
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但是它大约90%一致
13:08
at a reasonable cutoff,
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在一个合理的结算下
13:11
so everything in the cloud is roughly correlated.
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所以显然每一件事都是大概相关联的。
13:13
And then we find some outliers,
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然后我们发现了一些异常值，
13:15
some things that lie beyond the cloud.
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一些隐藏在云雾后的事情。
13:18
And those genes are interesting,
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那些基因是非常有趣的，
13:20
but they're very subtle.
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但是它们是很微妙的。
13:22
So I think it's an important message
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所以我想它是一个很重要的信息
13:25
to take home today
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今天你们可以带回家的
13:27
that even though we celebrate all of our differences,
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是尽管我们庆幸我们所有的不同，
13:30
we are quite similar
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我们还是非常相像的
13:32
even at the brain level.
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甚至在大脑层面。
13:34
Now what do those differences look like?
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这些不同看起来像什么呢？
13:36
This is an example of a study that we did
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这是一个研究的例子
13:38
to follow up and see what exactly those differences were --
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我们跟踪并研究这些不同到底是什么
13:40
and they're quite subtle.
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而且它们是非常精妙的。
13:42
These are things where genes are turned on in an individual cell type.
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我们发现的是基因以独立的细胞类型呈现。
13:46
These are two genes that we found as good examples.
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我们发现了两个基因作为很好的例子。
13:49
One is called RELN -- it's involved in early developmental cues.
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一个叫做RELN——它被包含在一个早期的发展线索中。
13:52
DISC1 is a gene
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DISC1是一个
13:54
that's deleted in schizophrenia.
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在精神分裂症中被删除的基因。
13:56
These aren't schizophrenic individuals,
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这些不是导致精神分裂症的个体，
13:58
but they do show some population variation.
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但是它们确实显示了一些人类的变化。
14:01
And so what you're looking at here
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所以我们在寻找的是
14:03
in donor one and donor four,
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在捐献者一和捐献者四中，
14:05
which are the exceptions to the other two,
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这两个捐献者的大脑与其他两个不同，
14:07
that genes are being turned on
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基因在细胞的不同子集中
14:09
in a very specific subset of cells.
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被打开。
14:11
It's this dark purple precipitate within the cell
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是在细胞中这个深紫色的沉淀
14:14
that's telling us a gene is turned on there.
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告诉我们那里有一个基因被打开了。
14:17
Whether or not that's due
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不论那是归因于
14:19
to an individual's genetic background or their experiences,
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一个独立的基因背景或者它的经历。
14:21
we don't know.
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我们不知道。
14:23
Those kinds of studies require much larger populations.
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这种研究需要更大量的人类大脑。
14:28
So I'm going to leave you with a final note
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所以我给你们一条最后的注释
14:30
about the complexity of the brain
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有关于大脑的复杂性
14:33
and how much more we have to go.
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我们还有漫漫长路需要探索。
14:35
I think these resources are incredibly valuable.
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我想这些资源是无价之宝。
14:37
They give researchers a handle
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它们给研究员们
14:39
on where to go.
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指出一条道路。
14:41
But we only looked at a handful of individuals at this point.
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但是我们现在只是研究了少数的个体。
14:44
We're certainly going to be looking at more.
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我们很确定我们要去研究更多的。
14:46
I'll just close by saying
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在结束时我想说
14:48
that the tools are there,
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工具在那里，
14:50
and this is truly an unexplored, undiscovered continent.
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而且这是一个真正的未被勘察过，未被发现的领域。
14:54
This is the new frontier, if you will.
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如果你愿意，这是一个新的前沿
14:58
And so for those who are undaunted,
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对那些勇敢的
15:00
but humbled by the complexity of the brain,
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但是深感大脑的复杂性很重要的人
15:02
the future awaits.
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未来在等着你们。
15:04
Thanks.
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谢谢。
15:06
(Applause)
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掌声
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Allan Jones - Brain scientistAs CEO of the Allen Institute for Brain Science, Allan Jones leads an ambitious project to build an open, online, interactive atlas of the human brain.
Why you should listen
The Allen Institute for Brain Science -- based in Seattle, kickstarted by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen -- has a mission to fuel discoveries about the human brain by building tools the entire scientific community can use. As CEO, one of Allan Jones' first projects was to lead the drive to create a comprehensive atlas of the brain of a mouse. Flash forward to April 2011, when the Allen Institute announced the first milestone in its online interactive atlas of the human brain, showing the activity of the more than 20,000 human genes it contains. It's based on a composite of 15 brains, since every human brain is unique.
Think of the Allen Human Brain Atlas as a high-tech bridge between brain anatomy and genetics. Using this atlas, scientists will be able to determine where in the brain genes that encode specific proteins are active, including proteins that are affected by medication. Or researchers could zoom in on brain structures thought to be altered in mental disorders such as schizophrenia to find their molecular footprint. The atlas may provide clues to memory, attention, motor coordination, hunger, and perhaps emotions such as happiness or anxiety.
He says: "Understanding how our genes are used in our brains will help scientists and the medical community better understand and discover new treatments for the full spectrum of brain diseases and disorders."
Watch Dr. Jones' latest TEDx talk on the map of the brain, from TEDxCaltech 2013 >>
Allan Jones | Speaker | TED.com