TEDxAtlanta
Sara Valencia Botto: When do kids start to care about other people's opinions?
薩拉·博特: 從何時起兒童開始關注別人的想法？
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借助她對兒童早期發展的研究，心理學家薩拉·瓦倫西亞·博托（Sara Valencia Botto）研究兒童何時（以及如何）在他人面前開始改變自己的行為——並探討這對我們在日常互動中所傳達的價值觀的意義。 （觀看鬼鬼祟祟幼兒的可愛鏡頭。）
Sara Valencia Botto - Psychologist
Sara Valencia Botto investigates when and how humans develop a concern for reputation. Full bio
Sara Valencia Botto investigates when and how humans develop a concern for reputation. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:12
I'd like you to take a moment
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我想請你花一點時間
00:13
and consider what
you are wearing right now.
you are wearing right now.
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想想你現在所穿的是什麼
00:17
I have a deep, philosophical
question for you.
question for you.
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我有一個深刻的哲學問題想問你
為什麼我們現在
都沒有穿著舒服的睡衣？
都沒有穿著舒服的睡衣？
00:21
Why are we not all wearing
comfortable pajamas right now?
comfortable pajamas right now?
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00:23
(Laughter)
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（笑）
我是個心理學家
可不是個會讀心術的人
可不是個會讀心術的人
00:24
Well, I'm a psychologist
and not a mind reader,
and not a mind reader,
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00:27
although many people think
that's the same thing.
that's the same thing.
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雖然很多人都覺得那是同一回事
00:30
I can bet you that your response
is somewhere along the lines of,
is somewhere along the lines of,
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我打賭你的回答
會是接下來的這句話：
會是接下來的這句話：
00:33
"I'm expected to not wear pj's in public"
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「我可不想在公共場合穿睡衣」
或者：「我不想
讓別人認爲我是個懶人」
讓別人認爲我是個懶人」
00:36
or "I don't want people
to think I am a slob."
to think I am a slob."
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無論你的答案是什麽，事實上
我們全部都選擇穿著半正式服飾
我們全部都選擇穿著半正式服飾
00:39
Either way, the fact that we all
chose to wear business casual clothing,
chose to wear business casual clothing,
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00:43
as opposed to our favorite
pair of sweatpants,
pair of sweatpants,
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而不是我們最喜歡的一條運動褲
00:45
is not a silly coincidence.
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並不是個傻乎乎的巧合
00:48
Instead, it reveals two
defining human characteristics.
defining human characteristics.
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相反，它揭示了兩個人類特徵
00:52
The first is that we are cognizant
of what other people value,
of what other people value,
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首先我們瞭解到別人的價值觀是什麽
00:56
like what they will approve
or disapprove of,
or disapprove of,
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就像他們會贊成或不贊成某件事
00:58
such as not wearing pj's
to these sorts of settings.
to these sorts of settings.
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比如在某些場合不穿睡衣
01:02
And two, we've readily used
this information to guide our behavior.
this information to guide our behavior.
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第二，我們很容易以這樣的信息
指導我們的行為
指導我們的行為
01:07
Unlike many other species,
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與其他任何種類不同
01:08
humans are prone to tailor their behavior
in the presence of others
in the presence of others
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人類很容易在別人面前
調整自己的行爲
調整自己的行爲
01:12
to garner approval.
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以獲得別人的讚許
01:14
We spend valuable time putting on make up,
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我們花費寶貴的時間化妝
01:17
choosing the right picture
and Instagram filter,
and Instagram filter,
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選擇正確的圖片和 IG 濾鏡
01:20
and composing ideas
that will undoubtedly change the world
that will undoubtedly change the world
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並且寫下那些無疑會改變世界的想法
但是得在 140 字以内
01:22
in 140 characters or less.
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01:25
Clearly, our concern
with how other people will evaluate us
with how other people will evaluate us
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顯而易見的是
關心別人怎樣評價我們
關心別人怎樣評價我們
01:28
is a big part of being human.
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是人類的重要組成部分
01:31
Despite this being
a big human trait, however,
a big human trait, however,
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儘管這是人類的一大特點
我們卻相對較少瞭解
我們什麼時候開始
我們什麼時候開始
01:34
we know relatively little
about when and how
about when and how
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以及為什麼會關心別人的想法
01:37
we come to care
about the opinion of others.
about the opinion of others.
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01:39
Now, this is a big question
that requires many studies.
that requires many studies.
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這是一個需要許多研究的龐大議題
01:43
But the first step
to uncovering this question
to uncovering this question
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但是解開這個問題的第一步
01:45
is to investigate when in development
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是在逐漸成長的過程中調查
我們是從什麽時候
對別人的評價開始敏感
對別人的評價開始敏感
01:47
we become sensitive
to others' evaluations.
to others' evaluations.
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我花了過去的四年時間在埃默里大學
01:51
I have spent the past four years
at Emory University
at Emory University
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01:54
investigating how an infant,
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研究原本可以在雜貨店內大大方方地
穿著連身衣亂跑的嬰兒
穿著連身衣亂跑的嬰兒
01:56
who has no problem walking
around the grocery store in her onesie,
around the grocery store in her onesie,
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02:00
develops into an adult
that fears public speaking
that fears public speaking
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怎樣成長為一個因懼怕被負面評價
而害怕在公共場合説話的成年人
而害怕在公共場合説話的成年人
02:03
for fear of being negatively judged.
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02:06
(Laughter)
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（笑）
02:08
Now, this is usually a point
when people ask me,
when people ask me,
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這通常是人們會問我的問題：
02:10
"How do you investigate
this question, exactly?
this question, exactly?
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「你到底是怎樣調查這個問題？
嬰兒不會説話，對吧？」
02:13
Infants can't talk, right?"
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好吧， 如果我丈夫現在出現在這裏
02:15
Well, if my husband
were up here right now,
were up here right now,
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02:17
he would tell you that I interview babies,
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他會告訴你我真的是訪問寶寶
02:20
because he would rather not say
that his wife experiments on children.
that his wife experiments on children.
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因為他不會想說
他的妻子用孩子做實驗
他的妻子用孩子做實驗
02:24
(Laughter)
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（笑）
02:27
In reality, I design
experiments for children,
experiments for children,
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其實， 我給孩子們設計的實驗
02:30
usually in the form of games.
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通常是以遊戲的形式實行的
02:33
Developmental psychologist
Dr. Philippe Rochat and I
Dr. Philippe Rochat and I
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發展心理學家菲利普·羅莎博士與我
02:36
designed a "game" called "The Robot Task"
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設計了一個叫做
「機器人的任務」的「遊戲」
「機器人的任務」的「遊戲」
02:39
to explore when children
would begin to be sensitive
would begin to be sensitive
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用來探索什麽時候孩子們會開始
02:41
to the evaluation of others.
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對別人的評價變得敏感
02:44
Specifically, the robot task
captures when children, like adults,
captures when children, like adults,
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具體來説，機器人的任務
能夠捕捉到孩子像成人一樣
能夠捕捉到孩子像成人一樣
當別人在注視他們時
戰略性地改變他們的行爲
戰略性地改變他們的行爲
02:48
strategically modify their behavior
when others are watching.
when others are watching.
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做實驗時，我們向
14 至 24 個月大的嬰兒展示
14 至 24 個月大的嬰兒展示
02:53
To do this, we showed
14 to 24-month-old infants
14 to 24-month-old infants
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怎樣啟動一個玩具機器人
02:56
how to activate a toy robot,
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並且更重要的是
我們要麼給一個正面的價值觀
我們要麼給一個正面的價值觀
02:58
and importantly, we either
assigned a positive value,
assigned a positive value,
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說：「哇，這個真棒」
03:00
saying "Wow, isn't that great!"
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03:03
or a negative value, saying,
"Oh, oh. Oops, oh no,"
"Oh, oh. Oops, oh no,"
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要麼給出個負面的價值觀說：
「 哦，糟糕，哦不」
「 哦，糟糕，哦不」
在按下遙控器後說
03:05
after pressing the remote.
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03:08
Following this toy demonstration,
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在這個玩具示範之後
03:09
we invited the infants
to play with the remote,
to play with the remote,
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我們邀請嬰兒們玩遙控器
03:12
and then either watched them
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然後要麼注視著他們
03:13
or turned around and pretended
to read a magazine.
to read a magazine.
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要麼轉過頭去假裝讀雜誌
這個設想是如果在 24 個月大時
03:17
The idea was that if by 24 months,
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03:19
children are indeed sensitive
to the evaluation of others,
to the evaluation of others,
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幼兒確實對他人的評價敏感的話
03:22
then their button-pressing behavior
should be influenced
should be influenced
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那麼他們按遙控器的行爲
應該會被影響
應該會被影響
03:25
not only by whether or not
they're being watched
they're being watched
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不僅因他們是否被注視而影響
03:28
but also by the values
that the experimenter expressed
that the experimenter expressed
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而且還因當他們按下遙控器時
實驗員表達出的評價所影響
實驗員表達出的評價所影響
03:30
towards pressing the remote.
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03:33
So for example,
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舉個例子
03:34
we would expect children to play with
the positive remote significantly more
the positive remote significantly more
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我們會看到孩子在被觀察時
明顯的多玩正面的遙控
明顯的多玩正面的遙控
03:38
if they were being observed
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但是當沒人注意他們時
他們會選擇玩負面的遙控
他們會選擇玩負面的遙控
03:39
but then choose to explore
the negative remote
the negative remote
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03:41
once no one was watching.
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為了真正捕捉到這個現象
我們做了三個不同版本的研究
我們做了三個不同版本的研究
03:43
To really capture this phenomenon,
we did three variations of the study.
we did three variations of the study.
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第一個研究探討嬰兒如何在
03:47
Study one explored how infants
would engage with a novel toy
would engage with a novel toy
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沒有給出任何價值觀和指令時
使用一個新玩具
使用一個新玩具
03:51
if there were no values
or instructions provided.
or instructions provided.
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03:53
So we simply showed infants
how to activate the toy robot,
how to activate the toy robot,
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所以我們簡單向嬰兒
展示怎樣啟動玩具機器人
展示怎樣啟動玩具機器人
03:56
but didn't assign any values,
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但是沒有給出任何的評價
03:58
and we also didn't tell them
that they could play with the remote,
that they could play with the remote,
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並且我們沒有告訴他們可以玩遙控器
這給他們提供了一個非常模糊的情況
04:01
providing them with a really
ambiguous situation.
ambiguous situation.
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04:03
In study two,
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在第二個研究中
我們將兩個價值觀結合起來
一個正面的，和一個負面的
一個正面的，和一個負面的
04:05
we incorporated the two values,
a positive and a negative.
a positive and a negative.
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在最後一個研究中
我們設置了兩個實驗員和一個遙控器
我們設置了兩個實驗員和一個遙控器
04:10
And in the last study,
we had two experimenters and one remote.
we had two experimenters and one remote.
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04:14
One experimenter expressed a negative
value towards pressing the remote,
value towards pressing the remote,
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一個實驗員對按遙控器的行爲
給出負面的價值觀
給出負面的價值觀
說：「糟糕，玩具動了」
04:17
saying, "Yuck, the toy moved,"
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04:19
while the other experimenter
expressed a positive value, saying,
expressed a positive value, saying,
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而另一個實驗員
給出正面價值觀時說：
給出正面價值觀時說：
「吔，玩具動了」
04:22
"Yay, the toy moved."
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04:23
And this is how the children reacted
to these three different scenarios.
to these three different scenarios.
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這就是孩子們
對三種不同場景的反應
對三種不同場景的反應
那麽在第一個研究中
在這個模糊不清的處境裏
在這個模糊不清的處境裏
04:27
So in study one, the ambiguous situation,
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04:30
I'm currently watching the child.
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我正在看著這個孩子
04:32
She doesn't seem to be too interested
in pressing the remote.
in pressing the remote.
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她看起來對按遙控器不太感興趣
04:36
Once I turned around --
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一旦我轉過頭去
現在她已經準備好按遙控器了
04:39
now she's ready to play.
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04:40
(Laughter)
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（笑）
04:43
Currently, I'm not watching the child.
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現在，我沒有注視孩子
她真的很專注
04:45
She's really focused.
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04:47
I turn around.
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我轉過來了
04:49
(Laughter)
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（笑）
04:50
She wasn't doing anything, right?
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她什麼也沒做了，對吧？
在研究二中，是兩個遙控器的
04:55
In study two, it's the two remotes,
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04:57
one with the positive
and one with the negative value.
and one with the negative value.
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一個是正面的，另一個是負面的
04:59
I'm currently observing the child.
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我現在正在觀察這個孩子
05:01
And the orange remote
is a negative remote.
is a negative remote.
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橘色的遙控器是個負面遙控器
05:05
She's just looking around,
looking at me, hanging out.
looking at me, hanging out.
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她僅僅是環顧四周，看看我，
05:08
Then I turn around ...
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然後我轉過頭
05:12
(Laughter)
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（笑）
05:15
That's what she's going for.
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這就是她的目標
我沒有在看著孩子
05:19
I'm not watching the child.
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他想讓媽媽陪他一起玩玩具，是吧？
05:21
He wants the mom to play with it, right?
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05:23
Take a safer route.
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真是很安全的一步棋
05:25
I turn around ...
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我回頭
05:28
(Laughter)
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（笑）
05:29
He wasn't doing anything, either.
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他也什麼都不做了
05:36
Yeah, he feels awkward.
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是啊，他覺得好尷尬
05:37
(Laughter)
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（笑）
大家都看到那側眼一瞥了，是吧？
05:38
Everyone knows
that side-eyed glance, right?
that side-eyed glance, right?
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研究三，是兩個實驗員和一個遙控器
05:41
Study three, the two
experimenters, one remote.
experimenters, one remote.
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05:44
The experimenter that reacted negatively
towards pressing the remote
towards pressing the remote
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對按遙控器表現出負面態度的
實驗員看著孩子時
實驗員看著孩子時
05:47
is watching the child right now.
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05:49
She feels a little awkward,
doesn't know what to do, relying on Mom.
doesn't know what to do, relying on Mom.
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她看起來有一小點尷尬
靠在媽媽身上不知道該做什麽
靠在媽媽身上不知道該做什麽
05:56
And then, she's going to turn around
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然後，實驗員轉過頭去
05:58
so that the experimenter that expressed
a positive response is watching.
a positive response is watching.
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所以只有表現正面回應的
實驗員在注視著孩子
實驗員在注視著孩子
06:04
Coast is clear -- now she's ready to play.
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危險已經過去了，她開始行動了
06:06
(Laughter)
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（笑）
06:07
So, as the data suggests,
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因此，正如數據所示
06:09
we found that children's
button-pressing behavior
button-pressing behavior
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我們發現兒童按遙控器的行爲
06:11
was indeed influenced by the values
and the instructions of the experimenter.
and the instructions of the experimenter.
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確實是被實驗員的
價值觀與指令所影響
價值觀與指令所影響
06:16
Because in study one,
children did not know
children did not know
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因為在研究一裡，孩子們不知道
06:19
what would be positively
or negatively evaluated,
or negatively evaluated,
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什麼是肯定的或否定的評價
他們傾向於採取最安全的路徑
06:22
they tended to take the safest route
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06:24
and wait until I turned my back
to press the remote.
to press the remote.
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並且等到我轉過頭去才按下遙控器
06:27
Children in study two
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在第二個研究中的孩子們
06:28
chose to press the positive remote
significantly more when I was watching,
significantly more when I was watching,
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當我注意的時候，他們選擇按下
正面遙控器的次數明顯更多
正面遙控器的次數明顯更多
06:32
but then once I turned my back,
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但是只要我一轉過身
06:33
they immediately took the negative remote
and started playing with it.
and started playing with it.
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他們便立即拿起並開始玩
負面的遙控器
負面的遙控器
重要的是，在對照研究中
06:37
Importantly, in a control study,
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06:38
where we removed
the different values of the remotes --
the different values of the remotes --
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我們刪除了遙控器的不同價值
所以我們只是在按下
任意一個遙控器後說：「哦，哇」
任意一個遙控器後說：「哦，哇」
06:41
so we simply said, "Oh, wow"
after pressing either of the remotes --
after pressing either of the remotes --
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06:45
children's button-pressing behavior
no longer differed across conditions,
no longer differed across conditions,
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孩子們的按壓行為不再因條件而不同
06:48
suggesting that it was really
the values that we gave the two remotes
the values that we gave the two remotes
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表明我們給這兩個遙控器的評價
06:52
that drove the behavior
in the previous study.
in the previous study.
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的確推動了之前研究中的行為
06:55
Last but not least,
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最後但跟之前同樣重要的是
06:56
children in study three chose to press
a remote significantly more
a remote significantly more
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在第三個研究中
在表示正面的實驗員注視時
在表示正面的實驗員注視時
07:00
when the experimenter that expressed
a positive value was watching,
a positive value was watching,
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孩子們選擇按下
遙控器的次數明顯更多
遙控器的次數明顯更多
07:03
as opposed to the experimenter
that had expressed a negative value.
that had expressed a negative value.
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而在負面價值觀的實驗員
注視時表現則相反
注視時表現則相反
07:07
Not coincidentally,
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這並非巧合
07:08
it is also around this age
that children begin to show embarrassment
that children begin to show embarrassment
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大概就在這個年齡上下
兒童在可能引起負面評價的情況下
開始表現出困窘
開始表現出困窘
07:12
in situations that might elicit
a negative evaluation,
a negative evaluation,
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07:15
such as looking
at themselves in the mirror
at themselves in the mirror
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比如在看鏡子裡的自己時
發現他們鼻子上有個印記
07:17
and noticing a mark on their nose.
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07:19
The equivalent of finding spinach
in your teeth, for adults.
in your teeth, for adults.
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對成年人來説相當於
看到卡在牙齒裡的菠菜葉
看到卡在牙齒裡的菠菜葉
07:22
(Laughter)
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（笑）
07:23
So what can we say,
based on these findings?
based on these findings?
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那麼基於這些發現
我們可以得出什麽結論呢？
我們可以得出什麽結論呢？
07:26
Besides the fact that babies
are actually really, really sneaky.
are actually really, really sneaky.
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除了嬰兒們其實都很狡猾這一事實
07:29
(Laughter)
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（笑）
07:30
From very early on, children, like adults,
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從很早開始，兒童就像成年人一樣
07:34
are sensitive to the values
that we place on objects and behaviors.
that we place on objects and behaviors.
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對我們放置在目標
與行為上的價值很敏感
與行為上的價值很敏感
重要的是， 他們用這些價值觀
來指導他們的行為
來指導他們的行為
07:38
And importantly, they use these values
to guide their behavior.
to guide their behavior.
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07:42
Whether we're aware of it or not,
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無論我們是否意識到
07:44
we're constantly communicating values
to those around us.
to those around us.
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我們總是在不斷地
向身邊的人傳達價值觀
向身邊的人傳達價值觀
07:47
Now, I don't mean values like
"be kind" or "don't steal,"
"be kind" or "don't steal,"
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現在，我不是在講像「行善」
或「不偷盜」這樣的價值觀
或「不偷盜」這樣的價值觀
07:51
although those are certainly values.
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雖然這些無疑都是價值觀
07:53
I mean that we are constantly
showing others, specifically our children,
showing others, specifically our children,
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我想說的是，我們常常向他人
特別是我們的孩子
特別是我們的孩子
展示什麼是討人喜歡的、有價值的
和可貴的，以及什麼不是
和可貴的，以及什麼不是
07:57
what is likeable, valuable
and praiseworthy, and what is not.
and praiseworthy, and what is not.
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並且很多時候
08:01
And a lot of the times,
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實際上我們甚至
沒有注意到我們這樣做
沒有注意到我們這樣做
08:02
we actually do this
without even noticing it.
without even noticing it.
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08:05
Psychologists study behavior
to explore the contents of the mind,
to explore the contents of the mind,
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心理學家研究行為來探索内心
08:09
because our behavior
often reflects our beliefs,
often reflects our beliefs,
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因為我們的行為經常反應我們的信念
08:12
our values and our desires.
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我們的價值觀和我們的願望
08:15
Here in Atlanta,
we all believe the same thing.
we all believe the same thing.
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在亞特蘭大，我們都相信同樣的事情
08:18
That Coke is better than Pepsi.
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可口可樂比百事可樂好
08:20
(Applause)
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（鼓掌）
08:22
Now, this might have to do with the fact
that Coke was invented in Atlanta.
that Coke was invented in Atlanta.
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這可能與可口可樂
是在亞特蘭大發明的事實有關
是在亞特蘭大發明的事實有關
08:27
But regardless,
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但無論如何
08:28
this belief is expressed in the fact
that most people will chose to drink Coke.
that most people will chose to drink Coke.
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這種信念表達的事實是
大多數人會選擇喝可口可樂
大多數人會選擇喝可口可樂
08:33
In the same way,
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以同樣的方式
08:34
we are communicating a value
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我們正在傳達價值觀
在多數情況我們讚美女孩時
08:36
when we mostly complement girls
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08:38
for their pretty hair
or their pretty dress,
or their pretty dress,
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會讚美她們漂亮的髮型
或漂亮的裙子
或漂亮的裙子
但是讚美男生時
會稱讚他們的聰明才智
會稱讚他們的聰明才智
08:40
but boys, for their intelligence.
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08:43
Or when we chose to offer candy,
as opposed to nutritious food,
as opposed to nutritious food,
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或者當我們選擇給糖而不是營養品
08:46
as a reward for good behavior.
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作為表現很好時的獎勵
08:49
Adults and children
are incredibly effective
are incredibly effective
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成人與兒童能非常有效的
08:52
at picking up values
from these subtle behaviors.
from these subtle behaviors.
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從這些微妙的行為中獲取價值
08:55
And in turn, this ends up
shaping their own behavior.
shaping their own behavior.
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而到頭來，這最終會塑造自己的行為
08:59
The research I have shared with you today
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今天我和大家所分享的這個研究
09:01
suggests that this ability
emerges very early in development,
emerges very early in development,
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表明這種能力在成長的早期出現
09:05
before we can even utter
a complete sentence
a complete sentence
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甚至早於我們可以說出
一個完整的句子
一個完整的句子
09:07
or are even potty-trained.
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或者說甚至早於我們如厠訓練之前
它成為我們成長中
一個不可或缺的部分
一個不可或缺的部分
09:09
And it becomes an integral part
of who we grow up to be.
of who we grow up to be.
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09:12
So before I go,
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所以在我離開前
09:14
I'd like to invite you
to contemplate on the values
to contemplate on the values
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我想邀請你思考一下
09:17
that we broadcast
in day-to-day interactions,
in day-to-day interactions,
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我們在日復一日的生活中
應用的價值觀
應用的價值觀
09:20
and how these values might be shaping
the behavior of those around you.
the behavior of those around you.
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以及這些價值觀
可能怎樣塑造你平常的行爲
可能怎樣塑造你平常的行爲
09:24
For example, what value
is being broadcasted
is being broadcasted
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例如，當我們花費大量時間
對著手機傻笑
對著手機傻笑
09:27
when we spend more time
smiling at our phone
smiling at our phone
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而不是對別人微笑時
09:30
than smiling with other people?
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什麽樣的價值觀正在上演
09:32
Likewise, consider how your own behavior
has been shaped by those around you,
has been shaped by those around you,
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同樣的，考慮一下你身邊的人
如何塑造你的行為
如何塑造你的行為
09:36
in ways you might not
have considered before.
have considered before.
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並且是以你以往
都沒有想過的方式塑造
都沒有想過的方式塑造
09:39
To go back to our simple illustration,
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回到我們簡單的話題中去
比較百事可樂，你真的
更喜歡可口可樂嗎？
更喜歡可口可樂嗎？
09:41
do you really prefer Coke over Pepsi?
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09:44
Or was this preference simply driven
by what others around you valued?
by what others around you valued?
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或者這種偏好只是因為
你身邊的人的觀點而驅使你這樣做？
你身邊的人的觀點而驅使你這樣做？
09:48
Parents and teachers
certainly have the privilege
certainly have the privilege
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老師們和家長們無疑是有特權
09:51
to shape children's behavior.
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去塑造孩子們的行為
09:53
But it is important to remember
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但是更重要的是要記得
09:56
that through the values we convey
in simple day-to-day interactions,
in simple day-to-day interactions,
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通過我們在簡單的日常互動中
所傳達的價值觀
所傳達的價值觀
10:00
we all have the power to shape
the behavior of those around us.
the behavior of those around us.
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我們能夠有能力塑造
我們身邊的人的行為
我們身邊的人的行為
10:04
Thank you.
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謝謝
10:05
(Applause)
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（掌聲）
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Sara Valencia Botto - PsychologistSara Valencia Botto investigates when and how humans develop a concern for reputation.
Why you should listen
Sara Valencia Botto is a PhD candidate in the cognition and development program at Emory University, where she researches social-cognitive development in early childhood. Her recent publication on sensitivity to evaluation in toddlers has been featured in various outlets, including ABC News, the Huffington Post and other major international newspapers.
By exploring the developmental origins of reputation, Botto's research investigates when and how humans, unlike many other animals, care about what other people think. She designs experiments for children of 14 months to five years and studies when and how they begin to alter their behavior to garner positive evaluations from others. Her goal is to understand why humans come to care about their reputation as well as the factors that contribute to inter-individual differences.
Sara Valencia Botto | Speaker | TED.com