TED2014
Rob Knight: How our microbes make us who we are
羅布•奈特: 微生物“成就”你我！
Filmed:
Readability: 4.5
2,014,096 views
微生物是寄居在人體內的微小單細胞生物群落，對人類健康帶來重大影響，而我們卻對此知之甚少。人類微生物研究領域的先行者 Rob Knight 聲稱：“人體內的三磅微生物可能比基因組中的每一個基因都重要”。讓我們一探究竟吧。
Rob Knight - Microbial ecologist
Rob Knight explores the unseen microbial world that exists literally right under our noses -- and everywhere else on (and in) our bodies. Full bio
Rob Knight explores the unseen microbial world that exists literally right under our noses -- and everywhere else on (and in) our bodies. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:13
We humans have always been very concerned
about the health of our bodies,
about the health of our bodies,
0
1089
3980
身為人類，我們時常會關心
個人的健康問題，
個人的健康問題，
00:17
but we haven't always been that good
at figuring out what's important.
at figuring out what's important.
1
5069
4216
卻總是找錯重點。
00:21
Take the ancient Egyptians, for example:
2
9285
2392
以古埃及人為例：他們非常重視
00:23
very concerned about the body parts
they thought they'd need in the afterlife,
they thought they'd need in the afterlife,
3
11677
3947
身體的各個部位，因為這將是
他們來世的軀體，
他們來世的軀體，
00:27
but they left some parts out.
4
15624
2090
但仍會有的放矢。
00:29
This part, for example.
5
17714
2623
以此為例。
00:32
Although they very carefully
preserved the stomach, the lungs,
preserved the stomach, the lungs,
6
20337
2997
古埃及人會謹慎處理胃、肺
00:35
the liver, and so forth,
7
23334
1165
肝等器官，
00:36
they just mushed up the brain,
drained it out through the nose,
drained it out through the nose,
8
24499
3036
但對於頭部，他們只會沖洗鼻腔，
00:39
and threw it away,
9
27535
1724
然後就隨便處理掉了，
這樣的作法合理的，
00:41
which makes sense, really,
10
29259
1341
00:42
because what does a brain
do for us anyway?
do for us anyway?
11
30600
2009
想想大腦對我們的幫助為何就知道了？
00:45
But imagine if there were a kind
of neglected organ in our bodies
of neglected organ in our bodies
12
33439
3198
但試想如果我們所忽視
的一個體內器官
的一個體內器官
00:48
that weighed just as much as the brain
13
36637
2136
它的重量恰巧和大腦相同
00:50
and in some ways was just
as important to who we are,
as important to who we are,
14
38773
2926
決定我們會成為怎樣的人，
00:53
but we knew so little about
and treated with such disregard.
and treated with such disregard.
15
41699
3552
但因為我們的無知而被打入冷宮。
00:57
And imagine if,
through new scientific advances,
through new scientific advances,
16
45251
2903
再試想，如果隨著科技的不斷進步
01:00
we were just beginning to understand
17
48154
1741
我們開始注意到
01:01
its importance to how
we think of ourselves.
we think of ourselves.
18
49895
2902
原來它對我們如此重要。
01:04
Wouldn't you want to know more about it?
19
52797
2206
你還會繼續對它視而不見嗎？
01:07
Well, it turns out that we do
have something just like that:
have something just like that:
20
55003
3226
我想，接下來你可能會：
01:10
our gut,
21
58959
1682
開始關注我們的腸道
01:12
or rather, its microbes.
22
60641
2662
或更多東西，比如腸道中的微生物。
01:15
But it's not just the microbes
in our gut that are important.
in our gut that are important.
23
63303
2893
當然不是只有腸道中的
微生物值得關注。
微生物值得關注。
01:18
Microbes all over our body
24
66196
1508
它無處不在，遊走于我們體內，
01:19
turn out to be really critical
to a whole range of differences
to a whole range of differences
25
67704
2913
是造成人體差異，
01:22
that make different people who we are.
26
70617
2497
形成不同個體的關鍵因素。
01:25
So for example, have you ever noticed
27
73114
2314
舉例來說，你有沒有發現
01:27
how some people get bitten by mosquitos
way more often than others?
way more often than others?
28
75428
4183
有些人就是特別容易被蚊蟲叮？
01:31
It turns out that everyone's anecdotal
experience out camping is actually true.
experience out camping is actually true.
29
79611
4579
事實上每個人的露營
經驗談都沒有造假。
經驗談都沒有造假。
01:36
For example, I seldom
get bitten by mosquitos,
get bitten by mosquitos,
30
84190
2809
拿我來說，蚊子很少叮我，
01:38
but my partner Amanda
attracts them in droves,
attracts them in droves,
31
86999
2277
但我的太太阿曼達是牠們的最愛，
01:41
and the reason why is that we have
different microbes on our skin
different microbes on our skin
32
89276
3063
原因就是我倆表皮上的
微生物形成了
微生物形成了
01:44
that produce different chemicals
that the mosquitos detect.
that the mosquitos detect.
33
92339
3722
不同的化學物質，導致
蚊蟲的反應不同。
蚊蟲的反應不同。
01:48
Now, microbes are also really important
in the field of medicine.
in the field of medicine.
34
96061
3506
目前，微生物對醫療也
發揮著重要作用。
發揮著重要作用。
01:51
So, for example, what microbes
you have in your gut
you have in your gut
35
99567
2465
比如，腸道中的微生物能判斷
01:54
determine whether particular painkillers
are toxic to your liver.
are toxic to your liver.
36
102032
4462
某些止痛劑對肝臟是否
有毒副作用。
有毒副作用。
01:58
They also determine whether or not other
drugs will work for your heart condition.
drugs will work for your heart condition.
37
106494
4245
它們還能判斷其它藥物是否會
影響你的心臟功能。
影響你的心臟功能。
02:02
And, if you're a fruit fly, at least,
38
110739
2687
如果你是只果蠅，微生物至少
02:05
your microbes determine
who you want to have sex with.
who you want to have sex with.
39
113426
3182
能決定你嚮往的交配對象。
02:08
We haven't demonstrated this in humans yet
40
116608
2159
當然對於人類尚未明斷
02:10
but maybe it's just a matter of time
before we find out. (Laughter)
before we find out. (Laughter)
41
118767
4296
但相信有一天我們會
找到答案（笑聲）
找到答案（笑聲）
02:15
So microbes are performing
a huge range of functions.
a huge range of functions.
42
123063
2623
所以，微生物的作用很多。
02:17
They help us digest our food.
43
125686
1766
它們有助於食物消化。
02:19
They help educate our immune system.
44
127452
2274
可以錘煉我們的免疫系統。
02:21
They help us resist disease,
45
129726
1950
還能幫助我們抵抗疾病，
02:23
and they may even
be affecting our behavior.
be affecting our behavior.
46
131676
2508
甚至會影響我們的行為。
02:26
So what would a map of all these
microbial communities look like?
microbial communities look like?
47
134184
3947
那麼這些微生物群落
有著怎樣的結構呢？
有著怎樣的結構呢？
02:30
Well, it wouldn't look exactly like this,
48
138131
2276
我想不太會像這樣，
02:32
but it's a helpful guide
for understanding biodiversity.
for understanding biodiversity.
49
140407
2879
但我們可以藉此
了解生物多樣性。
了解生物多樣性。
02:35
Different parts of the world
have different landscapes of organisms
have different landscapes of organisms
50
143286
3924
不同的地方正因為
02:39
that are immediately characteristic
of one place or another
of one place or another
51
147210
4571
有了不同的生物體
02:43
or another.
52
151781
2037
才賦予了他們獨有的特色。
02:45
With microbiology, it's kind of the same,
although I've got to be honest with you:
although I've got to be honest with you:
53
153818
3865
對於微生物界，道理相同，
但我也必須承認：
但我也必須承認：
02:49
All the microbes essentially
look the same under a microscope.
look the same under a microscope.
54
157683
3103
它們在顯微鏡下看起來都一樣。
02:52
So instead of trying
to identify them visually,
to identify them visually,
55
160786
2529
所以，既然無法從
視覺上區分他們，
視覺上區分他們，
02:55
what we do is we look
at their DNA sequences,
at their DNA sequences,
56
163315
2486
那麼我們只能從
基因序列來辨別，
基因序列來辨別，
02:57
and in a project called
the Human Microbiome Project,
the Human Microbiome Project,
57
165801
2924
在一項名為人類微生物組
項目的計劃中，
項目的計劃中，
03:00
NIH funded this $173 million project
58
168725
3339
NTH 投資了 17300 萬美元，
03:04
where hundreds
of researchers came together
of researchers came together
59
172064
2409
同時該項目還吸引到了
數百位研究人員
數百位研究人員
03:06
to map out all the A's, T's, G's, and C's,
60
174473
2779
為的是弄清所有A's、 T's、 G's和C's
03:09
and all of these microbes
in the human body.
in the human body.
61
177252
2176
以及人體內所有微生物
的排列組合。
的排列組合。
03:11
So when we take them together,
they look like this.
they look like this.
62
179428
3361
結果我們看到了
這樣一幅景象。
這樣一幅景象。
03:14
It's a bit more difficult
to tell who lives where now, isn't it?
to tell who lives where now, isn't it?
63
182789
3931
這樣你很難看出它們
的具體位置，對嗎？
的具體位置，對嗎？
03:18
What my lab does is develop
computational techniques that allow us
computational techniques that allow us
64
186720
3548
我的實驗室為此開發
了一種計算技術
了一種計算技術
03:22
to take all these terabytes
of sequence data
of sequence data
65
190268
2611
可將序列數據取值
到兆兆字節
到兆兆字節
03:24
and turn them into something
that's a bit more useful as a map,
that's a bit more useful as a map,
66
192879
3013
同時排列組合成可用性
更高的圖譜樣式，
更高的圖譜樣式，
03:27
and so when we do that
with the human microbiome data
with the human microbiome data
67
195892
2753
所以如果我們將250名
健康的志願受試者
健康的志願受試者
03:30
from 250 healthy volunteers,
68
198645
2095
體內的微生物數據代入其中，
03:32
it looks like this.
69
200740
2644
會顯示這樣的圖譜。
03:35
Each point here represents
all the complex microbes
all the complex microbes
70
203384
3180
這其中的每個點都代表整個
03:38
in an entire microbial community.
71
206564
2183
微生物群落中各個複雜的微生物。
03:40
See, I told you they basically
all look the same.
all look the same.
72
208747
2330
就像我說的，它們的樣子
都差不多。
都差不多。
03:43
So what we're looking at is each point
represents one microbial community
represents one microbial community
73
211077
3889
所以我們的觀察重點是
每個點是代表一位健康
每個點是代表一位健康
03:46
from one body site
of one healthy volunteer.
of one healthy volunteer.
74
214966
2260
志願受試者的某個軀體部位
的一個微生物群落。
的一個微生物群落。
03:49
And so you can see that there's different
parts of the map in different colors,
parts of the map in different colors,
75
217226
3796
我們像區分大陸板塊一樣，
用不同顏色
用不同顏色
03:53
almost like separate continents.
76
221022
1799
在圖譜中標識不同部位。
03:54
And what it turns out to be
77
222821
1458
由此可以發現
03:56
is that those, as the different
regions of the body,
regions of the body,
78
224279
2440
在軀體不同區域
03:58
have very different microbes in them.
79
226719
2078
會聚集不同的微生物。
04:00
So what we have is we have
the oral community up there in green.
the oral community up there in green.
80
228797
3683
現在我們看到的綠色群落
是口腔微生物群落。
是口腔微生物群落。
04:04
Over on the other side,
we have the skin community in blue,
we have the skin community in blue,
81
232480
2814
在另一邊藍色的群落是
肌膚的微生物群落，
肌膚的微生物群落，
04:07
the vaginal community in purple,
82
235294
2287
紫色的是陰道微生物群落，
04:09
and then right down at the bottom,
we have the fecal community in brown.
we have the fecal community in brown.
83
237581
3701
而在右下方棕色的是
肛腸區的微生物群落。
肛腸區的微生物群落。
04:13
And we've just over the last few years
84
241416
1883
近幾年來，我們驚奇地發現
04:15
found out that the microbes
in different parts of the body
in different parts of the body
85
243299
2799
人體不同部位的微生物
04:18
are amazingly different from one another.
86
246098
2198
竟然各不相同。
04:20
So if I look at just one person's microbes
87
248296
2832
所以，如果我們觀察一個人口腔和
04:23
in the mouth and in the gut,
88
251128
2114
腸道中的微生物，
04:25
it turns out that the difference between
those two microbial communities
those two microbial communities
89
253242
3460
會發現這兩個部位的微生物群落
04:28
is enormous.
90
256702
1531
的差異相當大。
04:30
It's bigger than the difference
between the microbes in this reef
between the microbes in this reef
91
258233
3165
人體中微生物群落的差異比
04:33
and the microbes in this prairie.
92
261398
2733
暗礁和草原微生物群落的差異更大。
04:36
So this is incredible
when you think about it.
when you think about it.
93
264131
2531
細想真是不可思議。
04:38
What it means is that a few feet
of difference in the human body
of difference in the human body
94
266662
3366
這表示如果從微生物生態學來看，
04:42
makes more of a difference
to your microbial ecology
to your microbial ecology
95
270028
2694
人體中微生物存在的些許差異
04:44
than hundreds of miles on Earth.
96
272722
2245
轉變為地球生態，其差異
可以是天差地別的。
可以是天差地別的。
04:46
And this is not to say that two people
look basically the same
look basically the same
97
274967
3020
也就是說，兩個看似相同的人
04:49
in the same body habitat, either.
98
277987
1852
未必有相同的體內環境。
04:51
So you probably heard
99
279839
1606
你可能聽過這樣的說法
04:53
that we're pretty much all the same
in terms of our human DNA.
in terms of our human DNA.
100
281445
3008
如果從人類的 DNA 來看，
每個人都幾近相同。
每個人都幾近相同。
04:56
You're 99.99 percent identical
in terms of your human DNA
in terms of your human DNA
101
284453
4089
以 DNA 來說，你和
05:00
to the person sitting next to you.
102
288542
1867
隔壁的人相似度可達 99.99%。
05:02
But that's not true of your gut microbes:
103
290409
2242
但是說道腸道微生物就不一樣了：
05:04
you might only share 10 percent similarity
104
292651
2487
從腸道微生物的角度來看，
05:07
with the person sitting next to you
in terms of your gut microbes.
in terms of your gut microbes.
105
295138
3510
相鄰兩人的相似度可能僅有10%。
05:10
So that's as different
as the bacteria on this prairie
as the bacteria on this prairie
106
298648
2796
這就好比草原中存活的細菌
05:13
and the bacteria in this forest.
107
301444
2056
不同於森林中存活的細菌。
05:16
So these different microbes
108
304460
1449
如同我之前提到的，
正是這些各不相同的微生物
正是這些各不相同的微生物
05:17
have all these different kinds
of functions that I told you about,
of functions that I told you about,
109
305909
3167
在人體中產生了不同的功用，
05:21
everything from digesting food
110
309076
1696
從消化食物
05:22
to involvement
in different kinds of diseases,
in different kinds of diseases,
111
310772
2555
到影響各類病症、
05:25
metabolizing drugs, and so forth.
112
313327
1866
代謝藥物等等。
05:27
So how do they do all this stuff?
113
315193
2106
那麼微生物是如何
集結成群，發揮作用的？
集結成群，發揮作用的？
05:29
Well, in part it's because
114
317299
1896
一方面是因為，
05:31
although there's just three pounds
of those microbes in our gut,
of those microbes in our gut,
115
319195
3330
這些僅重三磅的腸道衛生物
05:34
they really outnumber us.
116
322525
1760
其實際數目卻是驚人的。
05:36
And so how much do they outnumber us?
117
324285
2220
你問數目有多驚人？
05:38
Well, it depends on what
you think of as our bodies.
you think of as our bodies.
118
326505
3112
這取決於你怎麼看待人體。
05:41
Is it our cells?
119
329617
1485
如果你支持細胞論？
05:43
Well, each of us consists
of about 10 trillion human cells,
of about 10 trillion human cells,
120
331102
3413
那麼每個人都是由約10萬億
個人體細胞組成的，
個人體細胞組成的，
05:46
but we harbor as many
as 100 trillion microbial cells.
as 100 trillion microbial cells.
121
334515
3231
而我們體內存有的微生物細胞
達100萬億個。
達100萬億個。
05:49
So they outnumber us 10 to one.
122
337746
2774
也就是說相當於10個我們。
05:52
Now, you might think, well,
we're human because of our DNA,
we're human because of our DNA,
123
340520
3911
當然，如果你推崇DNA的概念，
05:56
but it turns out that each of us has
about 20,000 human genes,
about 20,000 human genes,
124
344431
3321
那麼目前已知的確切數字是，
05:59
depending on what you count exactly,
125
347752
1956
我們體內的遺傳因子約為20,000個，
06:01
but as many as two million
to 20 million microbial genes.
to 20 million microbial genes.
126
349708
4492
而微生物基因的數量可達
200萬至2000萬個。
200萬至2000萬個。
06:06
So whichever way we look at it,
we're vastly outnumbered
we're vastly outnumbered
127
354200
2759
所以無論是支持哪種理論，
06:08
by our microbial symbionts.
128
356959
2832
我們都是由無數的
微生物共生體組成的。
微生物共生體組成的。
06:11
And it turns out that in addition
to traces of our human DNA,
to traces of our human DNA,
129
359791
3227
所以我們不但要研究人類的DNA，
06:15
we also leave traces
of our microbial DNA
of our microbial DNA
130
363018
2227
我們所接觸對象的
06:17
on everything we touch.
131
365245
1780
微生物DNA也是有待挖掘的領域。
06:19
We showed in a study a few years ago
132
367025
1792
我們在過去幾年進行的研究顯示，
06:20
that you can actually match
the palm of someone's hand up
the palm of someone's hand up
133
368817
2795
如將某人留在常用鼠標上的物質
06:23
to the computer mouse
that they use routinely
that they use routinely
134
371612
2277
與其本身的掌紋相比較，
06:25
with up to 95 percent accuracy.
135
373889
2297
其匹配率可高達95%。
06:28
So this came out in a scientific journal
a few years ago,
a few years ago,
136
376186
2856
數年前曾有科學雜誌報道過這項發現，
06:31
but more importantly,
it was featured on "CSI: Miami,"
it was featured on "CSI: Miami,"
137
379042
2553
不過美國影集“CSI：邁阿密系列”
令它街知巷聞，
令它街知巷聞，
06:33
so you really know it's true.
138
381595
1787
可見這不是編劇杜撰的。
06:35
(Laughter)
139
383382
1595
（大笑）
06:36
So where do our microbes
come from in the first place?
come from in the first place?
140
384977
3397
那麼微生物從何而來？
06:40
Well if, as I do, you have dogs or kids,
141
388374
2647
像我一樣，如果你有養狗或小孩，
06:43
you probably have
some dark suspicions about that,
some dark suspicions about that,
142
391021
2363
可能難免會對此產生些
邪惡的疑慮，
邪惡的疑慮，
06:45
all of which are true, by the way.
143
393384
1979
順便一提，這都說得通。
06:47
So just like we can match
you to your computer equipment
you to your computer equipment
144
395363
2758
正如我們可以將你
留在計算機設備上的
留在計算機設備上的
06:50
by the microbes you share,
145
398121
1703
的微生物與本體作比較，
06:51
we can also match you up to your dog.
146
399824
2208
同樣的結果也可以印證在狗的身上。
06:54
But it turns out that in adults,
147
402032
2107
結果我們發現，成人的微生物群落
06:56
microbial communities
are relatively stable,
are relatively stable,
148
404139
2299
相對穩定。
06:58
so even if you live together with someone,
149
406438
2134
所以即使你和某人生活在一起，
07:00
you'll maintain your separate
microbial identity
microbial identity
150
408572
2398
仍可維持數週、數月、甚至數年
07:02
over a period of weeks,
months, even years.
months, even years.
151
410970
3014
你獨有的微生物特性。
07:05
It turns out that our
first microbial communities
first microbial communities
152
413984
2891
也就是說我們最初的微生物群落
07:08
depend a lot on how we're born.
153
416875
2150
取決於我們的出生環境。
07:11
So babies that come out
the regular way,
the regular way,
154
419025
2181
所以，對於順產的寶寶
07:13
all of their microbes are basically
like the vaginal community,
like the vaginal community,
155
421206
3060
他們的微生物特性通常更接近
於陰道部位的群落特征，
於陰道部位的群落特征，
07:16
whereas babies that are
delivered by C-section,
delivered by C-section,
156
424266
2365
而剖腹產的寶寶，
07:18
all of their microbes instead
look like skin.
look like skin.
157
426631
2906
其微生物特性更接近于
肌膚的微生物群落。
肌膚的微生物群落。
07:21
And this might be associated
with some of the differences
with some of the differences
158
429537
3037
而這種差異也可能被認為與
07:24
in health associated with Cesarean birth,
159
432574
2788
剖腹產寶寶的體質健康有關聯，
07:27
such as more asthma, more allergies,
even more obesity,
even more obesity,
160
435362
3216
比如目前就有較多人
認為微生物可能
認為微生物可能
07:30
all of which have been linked
to microbes now,
to microbes now,
161
438578
2530
與哮喘、過敏甚至是肥胖症有關，
07:33
and when you think about it,
until recently, every surviving mammal
until recently, every surviving mammal
162
441108
3897
基於這一點，反觀直至目前，
07:37
had been delivered by the birth canal,
163
445005
2556
每個經產道分娩的哺乳動物，
07:39
and so the lack
of those protective microbes
of those protective microbes
164
447561
2276
以及所缺少的、
07:41
that we've co-evolved with
might be really important
might be really important
165
449837
2450
共同進化、起保護作用的微生物，
07:44
for a lot of these different conditions
that we now know involve the microbiome.
that we now know involve the microbiome.
166
452287
4509
可能正是催生出不同
微生物學條件的重要因素。
微生物學條件的重要因素。
07:48
When my own daughter was born
a couple of years ago
a couple of years ago
167
456796
2737
幾年前我太太在緊急情況下
07:51
by emergency C-section,
168
459533
2435
剖腹產下我的女兒，
07:53
we took matters into our own hands
169
461968
1841
我們只能自食其力
07:55
and made sure she was coated
with those vaginal microbes
with those vaginal microbes
170
463809
2680
後天給予女兒如同順產般
07:58
that she would have gotten naturally.
171
466489
2040
可受到的陰道微生物群的保護。
08:00
Now, it's really difficult to tell
whether this has had an effect
whether this has had an effect
172
468529
3384
目前，我們尚無法判斷
08:03
on her health specifically, right?
173
471913
2002
這對她的健康是否有用，不是嗎？
08:05
With a sample size of just one child,
no matter how much we love her,
no matter how much we love her,
174
473915
3681
我們的觀察樣本只有一個孩子，
無論我們多愛她，
無論我們多愛她，
08:09
you don't really have
enough of a sample size
enough of a sample size
175
477596
2217
我們還是缺少足夠的觀察樣本，
08:11
to figure out what happens on average,
176
479813
1946
推斷出平均水平，
08:13
but at two years old,
she hasn't had an ear infection yet,
she hasn't had an ear infection yet,
177
481759
2897
直到她兩歲時，
尚未患支氣管炎，
尚未患支氣管炎，
08:16
so we're keeping our fingers
crossed on that one.
crossed on that one.
178
484656
2285
為此我們也一直祈禱她健康。
08:18
And what's more, we're starting
to do clinical trials with more children
to do clinical trials with more children
179
486941
3457
同時我們也開始通過臨床試驗
觀察其他孩子，
觀察其他孩子，
08:22
to figure out whether
this has a protective effect generally.
this has a protective effect generally.
180
490398
2922
藉此判斷這種微生物
是否能起到一般保護作用。
是否能起到一般保護作用。
08:27
So how we're born has a tremendous effect
on what microbes we have initially,
on what microbes we have initially,
181
495031
5323
可見分娩方式不同，
初生時體內微生物的不同，
初生時體內微生物的不同，
08:32
but where do we go after that?
182
500354
1917
其影響也是巨大的，
那麼接下來我們該做什麼？
那麼接下來我們該做什麼？
08:34
What I'm showing you
again here is this map
again here is this map
183
502271
2270
這裡我將再次出示這張
08:36
of the Human Microbiome Project Data,
184
504541
1998
人體微生物項目數據圖譜，
08:38
so each point represents
a sample from one body site
a sample from one body site
185
506539
2763
圖譜中的每個點都
代表 250 位健康成年人
代表 250 位健康成年人
08:41
from one of 250 healthy adults.
186
509302
2540
各個身體部位的取樣結果。
08:43
And you've seen children
develop physically.
develop physically.
187
511842
2067
各位已經熟悉兒童的生理發育，
08:45
You've seen them develop mentally.
188
513909
2056
也瞭解他們的心理成長，
08:47
Now, for the first time,
you're going to see
you're going to see
189
515965
2075
現在，你們將首次見證
08:50
one of my colleague's children
develop microbially.
develop microbially.
190
518040
3358
我同事的一個孩子
在微生物意義上的蛻變。
在微生物意義上的蛻變。
08:53
So what we are going to look at
191
521398
1565
我們接下來要觀察的對象
08:54
is we're going to look
at this one baby's stool,
at this one baby's stool,
192
522963
2687
就是這個孩子的“粑粑”,
08:57
the fecal community,
which represents the gut,
which represents the gut,
193
525650
2449
即代表腸道的糞便菌落，
09:00
sampled every week
for almost two and a half years.
for almost two and a half years.
194
528099
3169
我們每週採樣，持續近兩年半時間。
09:03
And so we're starting on day one.
195
531268
1663
我們從第一天開始觀察，
09:04
What's going to happen is that the infant
is going to start off as this yellow dot,
is going to start off as this yellow dot,
196
532931
3918
這個黃球的運動軌跡
就是嬰兒的微生物發育過程，
就是嬰兒的微生物發育過程，
09:08
and you can see that he's starting off
basically in the vaginal community,
basically in the vaginal community,
197
536849
3480
它基本上從陰道菌落開始出發，
09:12
as we would expect from his delivery mode.
198
540329
2026
這也符合孩子的分娩方式。
09:14
And what's going to happen
over these two and a half years
over these two and a half years
199
542355
2714
在兩年半的時間裡，
09:17
is that he's going to travel
all the way down
all the way down
200
545069
2142
它由上而下運動，
09:19
to resemble the adult fecal community from
healthy volunteers down at the bottom.
healthy volunteers down at the bottom.
201
547211
3814
最終與底部的健康志願者
糞便菌落相吻合。
糞便菌落相吻合。
09:23
So I'm just going to start this going
and we'll see how that happens.
and we'll see how that happens.
202
551025
3348
我們來看這一運動過程是怎樣的。
09:26
What you can see, and remember
each step in this is just one week,
each step in this is just one week,
203
554913
4036
請注意，黃球的每一步移動都歷時一周，
09:30
what you can see is that week to week,
204
558949
1866
大家可以看到這個孩子
09:32
the change in the microbial community
of the feces of this one child,
of the feces of this one child,
205
560815
4683
糞便微生物菌落的每週變化情況，
09:37
the differences week to week
are much greater
are much greater
206
565498
2551
這種變化遠遠超出了
09:40
than the differences between
individual healthy adults
individual healthy adults
207
568049
2531
人類微生物菌落專案對列中
09:42
in the Human Microbiome Project cohort,
208
570580
1950
健康成人個體之間的差異。
09:44
which are those brown dots
down at the bottom.
down at the bottom.
209
572530
2476
底部的褐色球表示
成人個體的微生物菌落。
成人個體的微生物菌落。
09:47
And you can see he's starting
to approach the adult fecal community.
to approach the adult fecal community.
210
575006
3197
我們可以看到，
它正開始接近成人糞便菌落。
它正開始接近成人糞便菌落。
09:50
This is up to about two years.
211
578203
1515
此時已過去了近兩年時間。
09:51
But something amazing
is about to happen here.
is about to happen here.
212
579718
2170
但一場“奇跡”即將在這裡上演。
09:53
So he's getting antibiotics
for an ear infection.
for an ear infection.
213
581888
3088
孩子因為耳部感染而服用了抗生素，
09:56
What you can see is
this huge change in the community,
this huge change in the community,
214
584976
2554
這導致其微生物菌落發生巨變，
09:59
followed by a relatively rapid recovery.
215
587530
2058
接著是相對快速的修復。
10:01
I'll just rewind that for you.
216
589588
2182
我們再來看一遍。
10:05
And what we can see is that
just over these few weeks,
just over these few weeks,
217
593340
3589
經過短短幾周時間，
10:08
we have a much more radical change,
218
596929
1933
我們發現微生物菌落的變化越來越大，
10:10
a setback of many months
of normal development,
of normal development,
219
598862
2530
拖累了孩子數個月的正常發育，
10:13
followed by a relatively rapid recovery,
220
601392
2252
接下來是相對快速的修復，
10:15
and by the time he reaches day 838,
221
603644
4133
等到第838天，
10:19
which is the end of this video,
222
607777
1719
也就是這段影片的結尾處，
10:21
you can see that he has essentially
reached the healthy adult stool community,
reached the healthy adult stool community,
223
609496
3697
我們可以清楚地看到，
儘管有抗生素的干預，
儘管有抗生素的干預，
10:25
despite that antibiotic intervention.
224
613193
2448
孩子的糞便菌落已經與健康成人相差無幾。
10:27
So this is really interesting
because it raises fundamental questions
because it raises fundamental questions
225
615641
3328
這個過程非常有趣，
10:30
about what happens when we intervene
at different ages in a child's life.
at different ages in a child's life.
226
618969
4099
它暗示了對不同年齡段的兒童
進行干預會引發某些問題。
進行干預會引發某些問題。
10:35
So does what we do early on, where
the microbiome is changing so rapidly,
the microbiome is changing so rapidly,
227
623068
3611
微生物的變化是如此之快，
10:38
actually matter,
228
626679
1300
是否意味著我們早期的干預行為，
10:39
or is it like throwing a stone
into a stormy sea,
into a stormy sea,
229
627979
2483
就像在風大浪急的海面投入一粒石子，
10:42
where the ripples will just be lost?
230
630462
1742
泛不起絲毫漣漪？
10:45
Well, fascinatingly, it turns out
that if you give children antibiotics
that if you give children antibiotics
231
633044
4291
結果，我們卻驚奇地發現，
10:49
in the first six months of life,
232
637335
1650
如果兒童在出生後六個月內服用抗生素，
10:50
they're more likely
to become obese later on
to become obese later on
233
638985
2785
他們將來會比同時期不服用抗生素
10:53
than if they don't get antibiotics then
or only get them later,
or only get them later,
234
641770
3127
或稍晚服用的兒童更容易變胖，
10:56
and so what we do early on
may have profound impacts
may have profound impacts
235
644897
2946
所以我們早期的干預行為
10:59
on the gut microbial community
and on later health
and on later health
236
647843
3497
可能會給兒童的腸道微生物菌落
11:03
that we're only beginning to understand.
237
651340
2326
以及他們未來的健康埋下嚴重的隱患。
11:05
So this is fascinating, because one day,
in addition to the effects
in addition to the effects
238
653666
4156
這是令人震驚的發現，
因為將來會有一天，
因為將來會有一天，
11:09
that antibiotics have
on antibiotic-resistant bacteria,
on antibiotic-resistant bacteria,
239
657822
2646
抗生素除了對耐抗生素細菌
11:12
which are very important,
240
660468
1696
產生重大影響之外，
11:14
they may also be degrading
our gut microbial ecosystems,
our gut microbial ecosystems,
241
662164
2903
還可能削弱人類腸道微生物生態系統，
11:17
and so one day we may come
to regard antibiotics with the same horror
to regard antibiotics with the same horror
242
665067
3272
到那時，我們會談抗生素色變，
11:20
that we currently reserve
for those metal tools
for those metal tools
243
668339
2463
那種恐懼感絲毫不亞於對埃及人
11:22
that the Egyptians used to use
to mush up the brains
to mush up the brains
244
670802
2459
使用金屬工具搗碎人腦，
然後使腦漿流盡
然後使腦漿流盡
11:25
before they drained them out
for embalming.
for embalming.
245
673261
2064
進行屍體防腐的做法所產生的恐懼。
11:27
So I mentioned that microbes
have all these important functions,
have all these important functions,
246
675325
3021
我剛提到了微生物具有這些重要作用，
11:30
and they've also now,
just over the past few years,
just over the past few years,
247
678346
2649
並且經過前幾年的潛心研究，
11:32
been connected to a whole range
of different diseases,
of different diseases,
248
680995
2833
我們發現微生物與
多種疾患息息相關，
多種疾患息息相關，
11:35
including inflammatory bowel disease,
249
683828
2085
包括炎性腸病、
11:37
heart disease, colon cancer,
250
685913
1724
心臟病、結腸癌，
11:39
and even obesity.
251
687637
1830
甚至肥胖症。
11:41
Obesity has a really
large effect, as it turns out,
large effect, as it turns out,
252
689467
2646
肥胖對人的影響不可小覷，
11:44
and today, we can tell
whether you're lean or obese
whether you're lean or obese
253
692113
2393
通過觀察人體腸道內的微生物，
11:46
with 90 percent accuracy
254
694506
1879
我們現在有9成的把握
11:48
by looking at the microbes in your gut.
255
696385
2112
判斷一個人是消瘦還是肥胖。
11:50
Now, although that might sound impressive,
256
698497
2289
儘管這聽上去令人振奮，
11:52
in some ways it's a little bit problematic
as a medical test,
as a medical test,
257
700786
3331
但就醫學試驗而言，
某些方面仍存在障礙，
某些方面仍存在障礙，
11:56
because you can probably tell
which of these people is obese
which of these people is obese
258
704117
2997
因為即使你對腸道微生物一無所知，
11:59
without knowing anything
about their gut microbes,
about their gut microbes,
259
707114
2752
也能分辨這兩個人中誰比較胖，
12:01
but it turns out that even
if we sequence their complete genomes
if we sequence their complete genomes
260
709866
3043
而即便掌握了他們的完整基因組序列
12:04
and had all their human DNA,
261
712909
1657
以及全部的人體DNA，
12:06
we could only predict which one
was obese with about 60 percent accuracy.
was obese with about 60 percent accuracy.
262
714566
4366
我們也只有6成的把握
推斷誰患有肥胖症。
推斷誰患有肥胖症。
12:10
So that's amazing, right?
263
718932
1374
是不是感到大跌眼鏡？
12:12
What it means that the three pounds
of microbes that you carry around with you
of microbes that you carry around with you
264
720306
3812
這意味著對於某些健康狀況而言，
12:16
may be more important
for some health conditions
for some health conditions
265
724118
2342
人體內的三磅微生物可能
12:18
than every single gene in your genome.
266
726460
3665
比基因組內的每一個基因都重要。
12:23
And then in mice, we can do a lot more.
267
731555
2237
後來，我們對小鼠做了大量的試驗。
12:25
So in mice, microbes have been linked
to all kinds of additional conditions,
to all kinds of additional conditions,
268
733792
3645
小鼠體內的微生物關乎各種健康狀況，
12:29
including things like multiple sclerosis,
269
737437
2716
包括多發性硬化、
12:32
depression, autism, and again, obesity.
270
740153
3738
抑鬱症、自閉症，還有肥胖症。
12:35
But how can we tell whether
these microbial differences
these microbial differences
271
743891
2764
然而，如何判斷這些與疾病息息相關的
12:38
that correlate with disease
are cause or effect?
are cause or effect?
272
746655
2763
微生物差異究竟是因還是果？
12:41
Well, one thing we can do
is we can raise some mice
is we can raise some mice
273
749418
2647
我們做了這樣一個試驗：
12:44
without any microbes of their own
in a germ-free bubble.
in a germ-free bubble.
274
752065
2647
在無菌氣泡袋中培育體內
無自身微生物的小鼠，
無自身微生物的小鼠，
12:46
Then we can add in some microbes
that we think are important,
that we think are important,
275
754712
2953
然後，給它們添加一些
我們認為重要的微生物，
我們認為重要的微生物，
12:49
and see what happens.
276
757665
2082
看會發生什麼情況。
12:51
When we take the microbes
from an obese mouse
from an obese mouse
277
759747
2279
當我們從肥胖症小鼠
身上提取微生物，
身上提取微生物，
12:54
and transplant them
into a genetically normal mouse
into a genetically normal mouse
278
762026
2504
移植到氣泡袋中培育的
12:56
that's been raised in a bubble
with no microbes of its own,
with no microbes of its own,
279
764530
2859
體內無自身微生物的
基因正常小鼠身上時，
基因正常小鼠身上時，
12:59
it becomes fatter than if it got them
from a regular mouse.
from a regular mouse.
280
767389
3353
它比從普通小鼠移植微生物時變得更胖。
13:04
Why this happens
is absolutely amazing, though.
is absolutely amazing, though.
281
772142
2319
這背後的原因令人震驚不已。
13:06
Sometimes what's going on
is that the microbes
is that the microbes
282
774461
2200
有些時候，微生物幫助
13:08
are helping them digest food
more efficiently from the same diet,
more efficiently from the same diet,
283
776661
3058
小鼠更高效地消化食物，
13:11
so they're taking more energy
from their food,
from their food,
284
779719
2204
從而攝取更多的能量，
13:13
but other times, the microbes
are actually affecting their behavior.
are actually affecting their behavior.
285
781923
3231
另一些時候，微生物實際
會影響它們的行為。
會影響它們的行為。
13:17
What they're doing is they're eating
more than the normal mouse,
more than the normal mouse,
286
785154
3040
它們吃的比正常小鼠多，
13:20
so they only get fat if we let them
eat as much as they want.
eat as much as they want.
287
788194
3170
如果不加限制，
只會越吃越胖。
只會越吃越胖。
13:24
So this is really remarkable, right?
288
792614
2686
這一點很耐人尋味，對嗎？
13:27
The implication is that microbes
can affect mammalian behavior.
can affect mammalian behavior.
289
795300
4364
它意味著微生物可能
影響哺乳動物的行為。
影響哺乳動物的行為。
13:33
So you might be wondering whether we can
also do this sort of thing across species,
also do this sort of thing across species,
290
801224
4158
大家可能很好奇，
這一做法能否沿用到其他物種？
這一做法能否沿用到其他物種？
13:37
and it turns out that if you take microbes
from an obese person
from an obese person
291
805382
3270
從一個胖人身上提取微生物，
13:40
and transplant them into mice
you've raised germ-free,
you've raised germ-free,
292
808652
3063
移植到無菌培育的小鼠身上，
13:43
those mice will also become fatter
293
811715
2090
與從一個瘦人身上提取微生物相比，
13:45
than if they received the microbes
from a lean person,
from a lean person,
294
813805
3041
前者會導致小鼠變得更胖，
13:48
but we can design a microbial community
that we inoculate them with
that we inoculate them with
295
816846
3345
但我們可以設計一種微生物菌落，
給這些小鼠接種，
給這些小鼠接種，
13:52
that prevents them
from gaining this weight.
from gaining this weight.
296
820191
2554
預防其體重增加。
13:55
We can also do this for malnutrition.
297
823545
2055
這種做法同樣適合治療營養不良。
13:57
So in a project funded
by the Gates Foundation,
by the Gates Foundation,
298
825600
3088
在一個蓋茨基金會資助的專案中，
14:00
what we're looking at
is children in Malawi
is children in Malawi
299
828688
2183
我們把關注的目光投向馬拉維
14:02
who have kwashiorkor,
a profound form of malnutrition,
a profound form of malnutrition,
300
830871
2658
患有誇休可爾症，
即惡性營養不良的兒童，
即惡性營養不良的兒童，
14:05
and mice that get the kwashiorkor
community transplanted into them
community transplanted into them
301
833529
3123
我們將誇休可爾菌落移植到小鼠體內後，
14:08
lose 30 percent of their body mass
302
836652
2370
小鼠在短短三周內
14:11
in just three weeks,
303
839022
1179
體重暴降了30％，
14:12
but we can restore their health by using
the same peanut butter-based supplement
the same peanut butter-based supplement
304
840201
3818
不過，我們可以利用在診所中治療孩子的
14:16
that is used for
the children in the clinic,
the children in the clinic,
305
844019
2113
花生醬補充物使小鼠重獲健康，
14:18
and the mice that receive the community
306
846132
1856
相比之下，從誇休可爾症孩子的健康
同卵雙胞胎身上
同卵雙胞胎身上
14:19
from the healthy identical twins
of the kwashiorkor children do fine.
of the kwashiorkor children do fine.
307
847988
3247
移植菌落的小鼠卻健康狀況良好。
14:24
This is truly amazing because it suggests
that we can pilot therapies
that we can pilot therapies
308
852035
3941
這真是不可思議，
它意味著我們可以
它意味著我們可以
14:27
by trying them out
in a whole bunch of different mice
in a whole bunch of different mice
309
855976
2507
使用不同的人體腸道菌落，
14:30
with individual people's gut communities
310
858483
1930
在一群小鼠中進行療法試點，
14:32
and perhaps tailor those therapies
all the way down to the individual level.
all the way down to the individual level.
311
860413
4599
並且有望做到個性化定制。
14:38
So I think it's really important
that everyone has a chance
that everyone has a chance
312
866262
2915
所以，我認為讓每個人都有機會
14:41
to participate in this discovery.
313
869177
2706
從這一發現中獲益至關重要。
14:43
So, a couple of years ago,
314
871883
1248
為此，我們在幾年前
14:45
we started this project
called American Gut,
called American Gut,
315
873131
2071
啟動了這個名為“美國腸道”的專案，
14:47
which allows you to claim a place
for yourself on this microbial map.
for yourself on this microbial map.
316
875202
4204
讓每個人在這張微生物圖上占得一席之地。
14:51
This is now the largest crowd-funded
science project that we know of --
science project that we know of --
317
879406
3357
這是我們迄今已知的最大眾籌專案——
14:54
over 8,000 people
have signed up at this point.
have signed up at this point.
318
882763
2888
已有8000多人報名參加。
14:57
What happens is,
they send in their samples,
they send in their samples,
319
885651
2578
專案流程很簡單，報名者寄來樣本，
15:00
we sequence the DNA of their microbes
and then release the results back to them.
and then release the results back to them.
320
888229
3785
我們生成微生物DNA序列，
再將結果寄回給他們。
再將結果寄回給他們。
15:04
We also release them, de-identified,
to scientists, to educators,
to scientists, to educators,
321
892014
3691
我們還將結果“去識別化”，
15:07
to interested members
of the general public, and so forth,
of the general public, and so forth,
322
895705
3019
發佈給科研人員、教育工作者，
還有感興趣的普通民眾，
還有感興趣的普通民眾，
15:10
so anyone can have access to the data.
323
898724
3155
讓每個人都能分享這些資料。
15:13
On the other hand,
324
901879
1171
不僅如此，
15:15
when we do tours of our lab
at the BioFrontiers Institute,
at the BioFrontiers Institute,
325
903050
3282
我們還來到 BioFrontiers 研究所的實驗室，
15:18
and we explain that we use robots
and lasers to look at poop,
and lasers to look at poop,
326
906332
3560
循循善誘地向大家介紹使用
機器人和鐳射來觀察“粑粑”，
機器人和鐳射來觀察“粑粑”，
15:21
it turns out that not
everyone wants to know.
everyone wants to know.
327
909892
3112
結果，並不是所有人都表現得興致盎然。
15:25
(Laughter)
328
913004
1282
（笑聲）
15:26
But I'm guessing that many of you do,
329
914286
1921
但我猜想在座的各位很多人都有興趣，
15:28
and so I brought some kits here
if you're interested
if you're interested
330
916207
2659
所以我今天帶來了一些試驗用具，
15:30
in trying this out for yourself.
331
918866
2730
有興趣的話，大家可以親自嘗試。
15:35
So why might we want to do this?
332
923046
1947
我們為什麼要這樣做？
15:36
Well, it turns out that microbes
are not just important
are not just important
333
924993
2570
因為我們發現，微生物不僅有助於
15:39
for finding out where we are
in terms of our health,
in terms of our health,
334
927563
2901
我們瞭解自身的健康狀況，
15:42
but they can actually cure disease.
335
930464
2408
而且能夠治癒疾病。
15:44
This is one of the newest things
we've been able to visualize
we've been able to visualize
336
932872
2925
這是我們與明尼蘇達大學的同事
15:47
with colleagues
at the University of Minnesota.
at the University of Minnesota.
337
935797
2739
能夠形象化展示的最新發現之一。
15:50
So here's that map
of the human microbiome again.
of the human microbiome again.
338
938536
2617
我們再來看一下這張
人類微生物菌落圖。
人類微生物菌落圖。
15:53
What we're looking at now --
339
941153
1457
現在，我們來看這裡--
15:54
I'm going to add in the community
of some people with C. diff.
of some people with C. diff.
340
942610
3370
我準備在這裡增加一些
難辨梭狀芽孢桿菌攜帶者的菌落。
難辨梭狀芽孢桿菌攜帶者的菌落。
15:57
So, this is a terrible form of diarrhea
341
945980
2279
這是一種嚴重的腹瀉細菌，
16:00
where you have to go
up to 20 times a day,
up to 20 times a day,
342
948259
2345
人感染後一天要跑20多趟廁所，
16:02
and these people have failed
antibiotic therapy for two years
antibiotic therapy for two years
343
950604
3111
這些腹瀉患者用了
兩年的抗生素療法仍不見成效，
兩年的抗生素療法仍不見成效，
16:05
before they're eligible for this trial.
344
953715
2299
最終入選了我們的微生物療法試驗。
16:08
So what would happen if we transplanted
some of the stool from a healthy donor,
some of the stool from a healthy donor,
345
956014
4413
如果我們將健康捐贈者的糞菌，
16:12
that star down at the bottom,
346
960427
1857
即這張圖底部的星形微生物，
16:14
into these patients.
347
962284
1416
移植到腹瀉患者身上會怎樣？
16:15
Would the good microbes
do battle with the bad microbes
do battle with the bad microbes
348
963700
2609
良性微生物與惡性微生物會相互較量，
16:18
and help to restore their health?
349
966309
2079
幫助患者恢復健康嗎？
16:20
So let's watch exactly what happens there.
350
968388
2316
讓我們仔細觀察究竟會發生什麼。
16:22
Four of those patients
are about to get a transplant
are about to get a transplant
351
970704
2516
其中四名患者將從底部的
16:25
from that healthy donor at the bottom,
352
973220
1904
健康捐贈者那裡移植糞菌，
16:27
and what you can see is that immediately,
353
975124
1957
然後你會看到腸道菌落
16:29
you have this radical change
in the gut community.
in the gut community.
354
977081
2405
立刻發生天翻地覆的變化。
16:31
So one day after you do that transplant,
355
979486
2069
等到某一天移植完成後，
16:33
all those symptoms clear up,
356
981555
1649
所有症狀蕩然無存，
16:35
the diarrhea vanishes,
357
983204
1555
腹瀉徹底消失，
16:36
and they're essentially healthy again,
coming to resemble the donor's community,
coming to resemble the donor's community,
358
984759
3772
患者基本恢復健康，
形成了與捐贈者相似的菌落，
形成了與捐贈者相似的菌落，
16:40
and they stay there.
359
988531
2062
並長久地保持下去。
16:42
(Applause)
360
990593
4797
（掌聲）
16:49
So we're just at the beginning
of this discovery.
of this discovery.
361
997290
2375
所以，這就是我們新的發現。
16:51
We're just finding out that microbes
have implications
have implications
362
999665
2540
微生物對各種不同的疾病，
16:54
for all these different kinds of diseases,
363
1002205
2173
從炎性腸病到肥胖症，
16:56
ranging from inflammatory
bowel disease to obesity,
bowel disease to obesity,
364
1004378
2468
甚至包括自閉症和抑鬱症，
16:58
and perhaps even autism and depression.
365
1006846
3083
都具有十分重要的意義。
17:01
What we need to do, though,
366
1009929
1338
我們要做的，
17:03
is we need to develop
a kind of microbial GPS,
a kind of microbial GPS,
367
1011267
2258
就是開發一種微生物 GPS，
17:05
where we don't just know
where we are currently
where we are currently
368
1013525
2321
讓我們瞭解自己目前身在何處，
17:07
but also where we want to go
and what we need to do
and what we need to do
369
1015846
3551
未來要去往何方，
17:11
in order to get there,
370
1019397
1486
也知道如何到達目的地，
17:12
and we need to be able
to make this simple enough
to make this simple enough
371
1020883
2345
而且，我們要讓一切變簡單，
17:15
that even a child can use it.
(Laughter)
(Laughter)
372
1023228
2601
連小孩都能信手拈來。
（笑聲）
（笑聲）
17:17
Thank you.
373
1025829
2229
謝謝。
17:20
(Applause)
374
1028058
3204
（掌聲）
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Rob Knight - Microbial ecologistRob Knight explores the unseen microbial world that exists literally right under our noses -- and everywhere else on (and in) our bodies.
Why you should listen
Using scatological research methods that might repel the squeamish, microbial researcher Rob Knight uncovers the secret ecosystem (or "microbiome") of microbes that inhabit our bodies -- and the bodies of every creature on earth. In the process, he’s discovered a complex internal ecology that affects everything from weight loss to our susceptibility to disease. As he said to Nature in 2012, "What motivates me, from a pragmatic standpoint, is how understanding the microbial world might help us improve human and environmental health.”
Knight’s recent projects include the American Gut, an attempt to map the unique microbiome of the United States using open-access data mining tools and citizen-scientists to discover how lifestyle and diet affect our internal flora and fauna, and our overall health.
Knight is the author of the TED Book, Follow Your Gut: The Enormous Impact of Tiny Microbes.
Rob Knight | Speaker | TED.com