TEDxRainier
Patricia Kuhl: The linguistic genius of babies
Patricia Kuhl: Chaqaloqlarning tilshunoslik daholigi
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TEDxRainier da, Patricia Kuhl chaqaloqlarning tillarni qanday o'rganishi haqidagi hayratlanarli topilmalarni aytib beradi. Ular atrofdagi insonlarni tinglab va bilishi kerak bo'lgan tovushlar haqida statistikani oladilar. 6 oylik chaqaloqlar atrofidagi olamni tushunishlari uchun qanday murakkab fikrlashlarini oqilona laboratoriya tajribalari (va miya tekshirishlari) ko'rsatib beradi.
Patricia Kuhl - Language
Patricia Kuhl studies how we learn language as babies, looking at the ways our brains form around language acquisition. Full bio
Patricia Kuhl studies how we learn language as babies, looking at the ways our brains form around language acquisition. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:15
I want you to take a look at this baby.
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Bu chaqaloqqa e'tiboringizni qarating.
00:18
What you're drawn to are her eyes
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Sizning e'tiboringizni jalb qilgan narsa chaqaloqning ko'zlari
00:21
and the skin you love to touch.
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va siz ushlashni yaxshi ko'radigan terisi.
00:24
But today I'm going to talk to you about something you can't see --
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Bugun esa, sizlar ko'ra olmaydigan narsa haqida gapirmoqchiman,
00:27
what's going on up in that little brain of hers.
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bu chaqaloqning kichkina miyasida nimalar sodir bo'layotgani haqida gapiraman.
00:31
The modern tools of neuroscience
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Bu miyada sodir bo'laytigan narsalar
00:33
are demonstrating to us that what's going on up there
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raketashunoslik ilmidan hech ham kam emasligini
00:36
is nothing short of rocket science.
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bizga nevrologiyaning zamonaviy asboblari ko'rsatib beryapdi.
00:39
And what we're learning
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Va biz o'rganayotganimiz
00:41
is going to shed some light
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romantik yozuvchi va shoirlar
00:43
on what the romantic writers and poets
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bolaning fikridagi "samoviy yorqinlik"
00:46
described as the "celestial openness"
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deb tasvirlagan holat haqida
00:49
of the child's mind.
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tushuncha beradi.
00:51
What we see here
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Ko'rib turganingiz
00:53
is a mother in India,
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Hindistondagi ona,
00:55
and she's speaking Koro,
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u yangi kashf qilingan til -
00:57
which is a newly discovered language.
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Koro tilida gapiryapdi.
00:59
And she's talking to her baby.
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Va u chaqalog'iga gapiryapdi.
01:01
What this mother --
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Bu ona va
01:03
and the 800 people who speak Koro in the world --
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Koro tilida gapiradigan dunyodagi 800 ta odamlar --
01:06
understands [is] that, to preserve this language,
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bu tilni saqlab qolish uchun chaqaloqlariga shu
01:09
they need to speak it to the babies.
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tilda gapirish kerakligini biladilar.
01:12
And therein lies a critical puzzle.
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Bunda dolzarb jumboq bor.
01:15
Why is it that you can't preserve a language
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Nima uchun siz o'zingizga va menga, ya'ni o'smirlarga,
01:17
by speaking to you and I, to the adults?
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gapirish orqali tilni saqlay olmaysiz?
01:20
Well, it's got to do with your brain.
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Ho'p, bu miyangizga bog'liqdir.
01:23
What we see here
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Tilni o'rganish uchun dolzarb davr
01:25
is that language has a critical period for learning.
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borligini bu yerda ko'rib turibmiz.
01:28
The way to read this slide is to look at your age on the horizontal axis.
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Bu sahifani o'qish usuli gorizontal chziqdagi yoshingizga qarashdir.
01:31
(Laughter)
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(Kulgi)
01:34
And you'll see on the vertical
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Va vertikal chiziqda ikkinchi tilni
01:36
your skill at acquiring a second language.
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o'rganishga bo'lgan qobiliyatingizni ko'rasiz.
01:38
Babies and children are geniuses
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Chaqaloqlar va yosh bolalar yetti yoshga
01:40
until they turn seven,
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chiqquncha dahodirlar,
01:42
and then there's a systematic decline.
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undan so'ngra muntazam ravishda sustlashish bo'ladi.
01:45
After puberty, we fall off the map.
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Yetuklikdan so'ng, mashhurlikni yo'qotamiz.
01:47
No scientists dispute this curve,
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Hech qaysi olimlar bu qiyalik haqida bahs qilmaydi,
01:50
but laboratories all over the world
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ammo butun dunyodagi laboratoriyalar
01:52
are trying to figure out why it works this way.
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buning nima uchun bunday usulda ishlashini aniqlashga harakat qilmoqdalar.
01:55
Work in my lab is focused
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Mening laboratoriyamdagi ish rivojlanishdagi
01:57
on the first critical period in development --
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birinchi dolzarb davrga e'tibor beradi --
01:59
and that is the period in which
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va ayni o'sha davrda chaqaloqlar
02:01
babies try to master which sounds are used in their language.
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o'zlarining tilida qaysi tovushlar ishlatilishini o'rganishga harakat qiladilar.
02:04
We think, by studying how the sounds are learned,
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Bizning fikrimizcha, chaqaloqlar tovushlarni qanday o'rganishini
02:07
we'll have a model for the rest of language,
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o'rganishimiz oqrali tilning boshqa rivojlanishiga nushamiz bo'ladi.
02:09
and perhaps for critical periods that may exist in childhood
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Balki, shu bilan birga muomala, hissiyot va ong rivojlanishi uchun bolalikdagi
02:12
for social, emotional
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dolzarb
02:14
and cognitive development.
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davrlarga ham nushamiz bo'ladi.
02:16
So we've been studying the babies
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Shunday qilib, biz butun dunyoda qo'llayotgan usul bilan
02:18
using a technique that we're using all over the world
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chaqaloqlarni va hamma tillardagi
02:20
and the sounds of all languages.
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tovushlarni o'rganyapmiz.
02:22
The baby sits on a parent's lap,
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Chaqaloq ota yoki onasining tizzasida o'tiradi
02:24
and we train them to turn their heads when a sound changes --
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va biz ularni tovush o'zgarganda, masalan, "ah" dan "ee" ga, --
02:26
like from "ah" to "ee."
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masalan, "ah" dan "ee"
02:28
If they do so at the appropriate time,
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Agar ular o'z vaqtida shunday boshini burishsa,
02:30
the black box lights up
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qora quti yorib ketadi
02:32
and a panda bear pounds a drum.
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va panda ayig'i baraban chaladi.
02:34
A six-monther adores the task.
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Olti oylik chaqaloq bu vazifani juda sevadi.
02:36
What have we learned?
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Ho'sh, bundan nima o'rgandik?
02:38
Well, babies all over the world
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Butun dunyodagi chaqaloqlar,
02:40
are what I like to describe
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mening tasvirlashimcha,
02:42
as "citizens of the world."
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dunyo fuqarolaridir;
02:44
They can discriminate all the sounds of all languages,
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biz buni qaysi davlatda tekshirayotganimiz va qaysi tilni ishlatayotganimizdan qat'iy nazar
02:47
no matter what country we're testing and what language we're using,
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chaqaloqlar hamma tillardagi hamma tovushlarni ajrata oladilar.
02:50
and that's remarkable because you and I can't do that.
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Bu juda ham hayratlanarli, chunki siz va men buni bajara olmaymiz.
02:53
We're culture-bound listeners.
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Bizlar madaniyatga bo'glanib tinglaguvchilarmiz.
02:55
We can discriminate the sounds of our own language,
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Bizlar chet tillaridagi tovushlarni emas,
02:57
but not those of foreign languages.
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faqat o'z tilimizdagi tovushlarni ajarata olamiz.
02:59
So the question arises:
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Ho'sh, shunday savol keladi:
03:01
when do those citizens of the world
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dunyoning shu fuqarolari qachon tilga bog'liq
03:03
turn into the language-bound listeners that we are?
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tinglovchilarga aylanadi?
03:06
And the answer: before their first birthdays.
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Javob esa bunday: birinchi tug'ilgan kunlaridan avval.
03:09
What you see here is performance on that head-turn task
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Mana bu ko'rib turganingiz Tokyo va AQSH dagi Seattle shahrida,
03:12
for babies tested in Tokyo and the United States,
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yapon tili emas, balki ingliz tili uchun muhim bo'lgan
03:14
here in Seattle,
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"ra" va "la" tovushlarini tinglaganda,
03:16
as they listened to "ra" and "la" --
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chaqaloqlarning boshni burish bo'yicha
03:18
sounds important to English, but not to Japanese.
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bajargan vazifasi.
03:21
So at six to eight months the babies are totally equivalent.
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Olti oylikdan sakkiz oylikkacha bo'lgan chaqaloqlar butunlay bir xil.
03:24
Two months later something incredible occurs.
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Ikki oy keyin hayratlanarli narsa sodir bo'ladi.
03:27
The babies in the United States are getting a lot better,
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AQSH dagi chaqaloqlar bu vazifani ancha yaxshi bajara boshlaydilar,
03:29
babies in Japan are getting a lot worse,
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Yaponiyadagi chaqaloqlar esa ancha yomon bajaradilar,
03:31
but both of those groups of babies
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lekin chaqaloqlarning bu ikkala guruhi ham
03:33
are preparing for exactly the language that they are going to learn.
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ayni o'zlari o'rganmoqchi bo'lgan tilga tayyorlanyar.
03:36
So the question is: what's happening
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Ho'sh, savol bunday, bu muhim
03:39
during this critical two-month period?
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ikki oy mobaynida nima sodir bo'lyapdi?
03:41
This is the critical period for sound development,
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Bu tovush rivojlanishi uchun juda dolzarb davr,
03:43
but what's going on up there?
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ammo u yerda nima sodir bo'lyapdi?
03:45
So there are two things going on.
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U yerda ikkita narsa sodir bo'lyapdi.
03:47
The first is that the babies are listening intently to us,
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Birinchisi chaqaloqlar bizlarni biror maqsad bilan tinglayapdi,
03:50
and they're taking statistics as they listen to us talk --
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ular bizlarning gapirishimizni tinglab, statistik ma'lumot olyapdilar --
03:53
they're taking statistics.
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ha, ular statistic ma'lumot olyapdilar.
03:55
So listen to two mothers speaking motherese --
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Chaqaloqlarning tilida gapirayotgan ikkita onaning gapini eshiting --
03:58
the universal language we use when we talk to kids --
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bu biz yosh bolalar bilan gaplashadigan umumiy til --
04:01
first in English and then in Japanese.
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birinchisi ingliz tilida va keyingisi yapon tilida.
04:04
(Video) English Mother: Ah, I love your big blue eyes --
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(Video) Ingliz ona: Oh, sening katta moviy ko'zlaringni sevaman --
04:07
so pretty and nice.
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naqadar go'zal va ajoyib,
04:11
Japanese Mother: [Japanese]
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yapon ona: (yaponchada)
04:17
Patricia Kuhl: During the production of speech,
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Patricia Kuhl: Nutq hosil qilish paytida,
04:19
when babies listen,
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chaqaloqlar tinglaganida,
04:21
what they're doing is taking statistics
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ular eshitayotgan tili haqida
04:23
on the language that they hear.
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statistic ma'lumotlar olyapdilar.
04:26
And those distributions grow.
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Bu masofalar ortib boraveradi.
04:29
And what we've learned
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Biz chaqaloqlarning statistik ma'lumotga
04:31
is that babies are sensitive to the statistics,
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e'tiborchan ekanligini anglab yetdik,
04:34
and the statistics of Japanese and English are very, very different.
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yapon va ingliz tillarining statistikasi esa bir biridadn juda, juda farq qiladi.
04:37
English has a lot of Rs and Ls.
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Bu chizma-masofa ko'rsatishi bo'yicha
04:40
The distribution shows.
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ingliz tilida ko'p R va L tovushlari bor.
04:42
And the distribution of Japanese is totally different,
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Yapon tilidagi tovushlarning tarqalishi butunlay boshqacha,
04:44
where we see a group of intermediate sounds,
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Yaponcha R deb ma'lum bo'lgan,
04:47
which is known as the Japanese "R."
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bir necha o'rta tovushlar borligini ko'rib turibmiz.
04:50
So babies absorb
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Shunday qilib, chaqaloqlar tilning
04:52
the statistics of the language
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statistikasini ongiga singdirib oladilar
04:54
and it changes their brains;
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va bu ularning miyalarini o'zgartiradi;
04:56
it changes them from the citizens of the world
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ularni dunyo fuqarolaridan huddi biz kabi
04:58
to the culture-bound listeners that we are.
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madaniyatga bog'langan tinglovchilarga aylantiradi.
05:01
But we as adults
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Ammo, biz o'smirlar ana o'sha
05:03
are no longer absorbing those statistics.
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statistikani bundan buyon ongimizga singdirmayapmiz.
05:05
We're governed by the representations in memory
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Chunki ongimizda rivojlanishning ilk davrida shakllangan
05:08
that were formed early in development.
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tushunchalar bizlarni boshqaradi.
05:11
So what we're seeing here
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Mana bu ko'rib turganimiz esa til rivojlanishi uchun dolzarb
05:13
is changing our models of what the critical period is about.
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davr nima haqidaligi bo'yicha modelimizni o'zgartiryapdi.
05:16
We're arguing from a mathematical standpoint
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Matematik nuqtai nazardan muhokama qilishimiz bo'yicha
05:19
that the learning of language material may slow down
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bu chizmadagi masofamiz bir tekis bo'lganda
05:22
when our distributions stabilize.
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til o'rganish sekinlashishi mumkin.
05:24
It's raising lots of questions about bilingual people.
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Bu esa ikki tilda gapiruvchi insonlar haqida ko'p savollarni keltirib chiqaradi.
05:27
Bilinguals must keep two sets of statistics in mind at once
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Ikki tilda gapiruvchi insonlar bir paytning o'zida ikkita statistikani onglarida saqlashi shart
05:31
and flip between them, one after the other,
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va kim bilan gaplashayotganligiga qarab,
05:34
depending on who they're speaking to.
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bitta statistikadan keyin boshqasini almashtirishlari kerak.
05:36
So we asked ourselves,
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Biz o'zimizga shunday savol berdik,
05:38
can the babies take statistics on a brand new language?
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chaqaloqlar butunlay yangi tilning statistikasini qabul qila oladilarmi?
05:41
And we tested this by exposing American babies
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Buni hech qachon ikkinchi til eshitmagan
05:43
who'd never heard a second language
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Amerikalik chaqaloqlarni til rivojlanishining dolzarb paytida
05:45
to Mandarin for the first time during the critical period.
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ilk bor Mandarin tilini eshittirish orqali sinab ko'rdik.
05:48
We knew that, when monolinguals were tested
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Taipei va Seattleda Mandarin tilining tovushlari bo'yicha
05:50
in Taipei and Seattle on the Mandarin sounds,
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bir tilda gapiruvchilarni tekshirganimizda
05:53
they showed the same pattern.
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ular huddi shunday nusxani ko'rsatdi.
05:55
Six to eight months, they're totally equivalent.
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6-8 oyliklar butunlay bir xil.
05:57
Two months later, something incredible happens.
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Ikki oy so'ngra, g'aroyib narsa sodir bo'ladi.
06:00
But the Taiwanese babies are getting better, not the American babies.
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Amerikalik chaqaloqlar emas, balki taiwanlik chaqaloqlar tovushlarni ancha yaxshi ajratyapdi.
06:03
What we did was expose American babies during this period
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Shu davrda Amerikalik chaqaloqlarga Mandarin
06:06
to Mandarin.
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tilini eshitdirdik.
06:08
It was like having Mandarin relatives come and visit for a month
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Bu huddi mandarin tilida gapiruvchi qarindoshlarning sizni ko'rishga bir oyga kelib,
06:11
and move into your house
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uyingizga ko'chib kelib,
06:13
and talk to the babies for 12 sessions.
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chaqaloqlarga 12 dars mobaynida gapirishi kabidir.
06:15
Here's what it looked like in the laboratory.
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Mana bu laboratoriyadagi ko'rinishi.
06:17
(Video) Mandarin Speaker: [Mandarin]
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(Video) Mandarin tilida gapiruvchi: (Mandarin)
06:39
PK: So what have we done to their little brains?
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PK: Ho'sh, chaqaloqlarning kichkina miyalariga nima qildik>
06:41
(Laughter)
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(Kulgi)
06:44
We had to run a control group
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Shunchaki laboratoriyaga kelish
06:46
to make sure that just coming into the laboratory
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Mandarin tiliga bo'lgan qobiliyatingizni rivojlantirmayotganligiga
06:48
didn't improve your Mandarin skills.
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ishonch hosil qilish uchun qiyosiy nazorat guruhini ham sinab ko'rdik.
06:50
So a group of babies came in and listened to English.
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Bir guruh chaqaloqlar kelib, ingliz tilini tinglashdi.
06:52
And we can see from the graph
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Bu chizmadan ko'rib turganimizdek
06:54
that exposure to English didn't improve their Mandarin.
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ingliz tilini eshitish ularning mandarin tilini rivojlantirmadi.
06:56
But look at what happened to the babies
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Lekin 12 martalik muddatda mandarin tilini eshitgan
06:58
exposed to Mandarin for 12 sessions.
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chaqaloqlarga nima bo'lganiga e'tibor bering.
07:00
They were as good as the babies in Taiwan
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Ular Taiwan (Taivan) dagi 10 yarim oy mobaynida mandarin tilini
07:02
who'd been listening for 10-and-a-half months.
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eshitayotgan chaqaloqlardek yaxshi bilardi.
07:05
What it demonstrated
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Bu esa chaqaloqlarning yangi til
07:07
is that babies take statistics on a new language.
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statistikasini o'zlashtirib olishini ko'rsatib berdi.
07:09
Whatever you put in front of them, they'll take statistics on.
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Chaqaloqlarning oldiga nima qo'ysangiz ham, ular narsalarning statistikasini o'zlashtirib oladi.
07:13
But we wondered what role
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Ammo, bu o'rganish jarayonida
07:15
the human being played
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inson qanday vazifa bajarganligi
07:17
in this learning exercise.
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bizni qiziqtirdi.
07:19
So we ran another group of babies
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Buni bilish uchun, boshqa bir guruh chaqaloqlar
07:21
in which the kids got the same dosage, the same 12 sessions,
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bir xil miqdordagi, ya'ni huddi avalgidek 12 martalik muddatda
07:24
but over a television set
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televizor ko'rib, tilni eshitishdi
07:26
and another group of babies who had just audio exposure
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va boshqa bir guruh chaqaloqlar esa faqatgina tovushlarni o'zini eshitdi va ekrandagi
07:29
and looked at a teddy bear on the screen.
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ayiqchani tomosha qilishdi.
07:31
What did we do to their brains?
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Biz ularning miyasiga nima qildik?
07:34
What you see here is the audio result --
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Ko'rib turganingiz faqat tinglashning natijasi --
07:37
no learning whatsoever --
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hech qanday o'rganish sodir bo'lmadi --
07:39
and the video result --
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va video bilan eshitish natijasi --
07:42
no learning whatsoever.
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hech qanday o'rganish sodir bo'lmadi.
07:44
It takes a human being
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Chaqaloqlar statistikani anglab yetishlari uchun
07:46
for babies to take their statistics.
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insonning hizmati kerak.
07:48
The social brain is controlling
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Chaqaloqlar statistikani o'zlashtirayotganlarida
07:50
when the babies are taking their statistics.
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ijtimoiy miya boshqarib turadi.
07:52
We want to get inside the brain
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Chaqaloqlar televizorning oldida bo'lganlarida,
07:54
and see this thing happening
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so'ngra insonlarning oldida bo'lgan paytida
07:56
as babies are in front of televisions,
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chaqaloqlarning miyasini tekshirib,
07:58
as opposed to in front of human beings.
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u yerda bu narsaning sodir bo'layotganini ko'ramiz.
08:00
Thankfully, we have a new machine,
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Yaxhsiyamki, bizga bu ishni bajarimizga imkon beradigan
08:02
magnetoencephalography,
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yangi asbob,
08:04
that allows us to do this.
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magnitoensefalograf bor.
08:06
It looks like a hair dryer from Mars.
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Bu Marsdan kelgan soch qurituvchi asbobga o'xshaydi.
08:08
But it's completely safe,
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Lekin bu umuman xavfsiz,
08:10
completely non-invasive and silent.
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kesuvchi emas va shovqinsiz.
08:13
We're looking at millimeter accuracy
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Biz masofaga nisbatan
08:15
with regard to spatial
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millimetrning aniqligiga
08:17
and millisecond accuracy
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va 306 SQUID dan foydalangan holda
08:19
using 306 SQUIDs --
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millisoniya aniqligiga qaraypamiz,
08:21
these are Superconducting
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bular (ya'ni SQUID) - yuzadan o'tuvchi kvantum
08:23
QUantum Interference Devices --
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interferensiya asboblari --
08:25
to pick up the magnetic fields
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bular biz o'ylagan sayin o'zgaradigan
08:27
that change as we do our thinking.
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magnit sohalarini aniqlab oladi.
08:29
We're the first in the world
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Dunyoda eng avval biz
08:31
to record babies
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magnitoensefalograf asbobi yordamida
08:33
in an MEG machine
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chaqaloqlarni o'rganayotgan paytida
08:35
while they are learning.
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tekshiryapmiz.
08:37
So this is little Emma.
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Mana bu jajji Emma.
08:39
She's a six-monther.
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U olti oylik.
08:41
And she's listening to various languages
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U qulog'iga taqib olgan eshitish asboblari bilan
08:43
in the earphones that are in her ears.
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har xil tillarni eshityapdi.
08:46
You can see, she can move around.
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Ko'rib turganingizdek, u bemalol harakat qila oladi.
08:48
We're tracking her head
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shapkadagi kichkina sharchalar bilan
08:50
with little pellets in a cap,
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uning boshining harakatini kuzatib turibmiz,
08:52
so she's free to move completely unconstrained.
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u esa butunlay erkin harakat qilishi mumkin.
08:55
It's a technical tour de force.
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Bu texnologik qobiliyat.
08:57
What are we seeing?
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Nimani ko'ryapmiz?
08:59
We're seeing the baby brain.
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Chaqaloqning miyasini ko'ryapmiz.
09:01
As the baby hears a word in her language
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Chaqaloq ona tilidagi so'zni eshitishi bilan
09:04
the auditory areas light up,
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eshitish sohalari ochiladi,
09:06
and then subsequently areas surrounding it
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keyin esa uning atrofidagi sohalar, ya'ni
09:08
that we think are related to coherence,
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miyaning atrofidagi har xil sohalari bilan bog'laydigan
09:11
getting the brain coordinated with its different areas,
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sohalarini
09:13
and causality,
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va miyaning bir sohasi
09:15
one brain area causing another to activate.
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boshqa birini harakatga keltiruvchi qismlarini harakatga keltiradi.
09:18
We are embarking
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Biz chaqaloq miyasining
09:20
on a grand and golden age
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rivojlanishi haqidagi ilmning
09:23
of knowledge about child's brain development.
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ulkan va oltin asriga kelyapmiz.
09:26
We're going to be able to see a child's brain
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Chaqaloq his tuyg'u sezgan,
09:28
as they experience an emotion,
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gapirish va o'qishni o'rgangan,
09:30
as they learn to speak and read,
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matematika masalasini yechgan
09:32
as they solve a math problem,
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va fikrga ega bo'lgan paytlarida
09:34
as they have an idea.
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biz chaqaloqning miyasini ko'ra olamiz.
09:36
And we're going to be able to invent brain-based interventions
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O'rganishga qiynalgan bolalar uchun miyaga asoslangan
09:39
for children who have difficulty learning.
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o'rganishga yordam berish usullarini kashf qilishga imkoniyatimiz bo'ladi.
09:42
Just as the poets and writers described,
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Huddi shoir va yozuvchilar tasvirlaganidek,
09:45
we're going to be able to see, I think,
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mening fikrimcha, biz ham bolaning ongidagi
09:47
that wondrous openness,
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o'sha ajoyib ochiqlikni,
09:49
utter and complete openness,
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mukammal va cheksiz ochiqlikni
09:51
of the mind of a child.
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ko'ra olamiz.
09:54
In investigating the child's brain,
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Bolaning miyasini o'rganish bilan,
09:56
we're going to uncover deep truths
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biz inson bo'lish nima ekanligi haqidagi
09:58
about what it means to be human,
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chuqur haqiqatni bila olamiz,
10:00
and in the process,
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shu bilan birga
10:02
we may be able to help keep our own minds open to learning
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butun hayotimiz davomida ongimizni ilm uchun, o'rganish uchun ochiq saqlay olishimizga
10:04
for our entire lives.
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imkoniyatimiz bo'lishi mumkin.
10:06
Thank you.
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Rahmat.
10:08
(Applause)
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(Qarsaklar)
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Patricia Kuhl - LanguagePatricia Kuhl studies how we learn language as babies, looking at the ways our brains form around language acquisition.
Why you should listen
Patricia Kuhl is co-director of the Institute for Brain and Learning Sciences at the University of Washington. She's internationally recognized for her research on early language and brain development, and studies that show how young children learn. Kuhl’s work has played a major role in demonstrating how early exposure to language alters the brain. It has implications for critical periods in development, for bilingual education and reading readiness, for developmental disabilities involving language, and for research on computer understanding of speech.
Patricia Kuhl | Speaker | TED.com