ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Scott Fraser - Forensic psychologist, expert witness
Scott Fraser is a forensic psychologist who thinks deeply about the fallibility of human memory and encourages a more scientific approach to trial evidence.

Why you should listen

When it comes to witnesses in criminal trials, the accuracy of human memory can mean the difference between life and death. Scott Fraser is an expert witness who researches what’s real and what’s selective when it comes to human memory and crime. His areas of expertise include human night vision, neuropsychopharmacology, and the effect of stress and other factors on the human mind. He has testified in criminal and civil cases throughout the U.S. in state and federal courts.

In 2011 Fraser was involved in the retrial of a 1992 murder case in which Francisco Carrillo was found guilty and sentenced to two life sentences in prison. Fraser and the team that hired him staged a dramatic reenactment of the night of the murder in question and showed the testimonies that had put Carrillo in jail were unreliable. After 20 years in jail for a crime he didn't commit, Carrillo was freed.

More profile about the speaker
Scott Fraser | Speaker | TED.com
TEDxUSC

Scott Fraser: Why eyewitnesses get it wrong

史考特.佛瑞瑟: 為什麼目擊者錯認

Filmed:
1,283,289 views

史考特.佛瑞瑟(Scott Fraser)研究有關人們的如何記得犯罪事件,也為之作證。這場有力的演說,聚焦於一件發生於日落後的致命的槍殺凶案。他指出就算是離犯案現場非常近的目擊者也會製造「記憶」,記得他們不可能見到的事情。為什麼?因為人類大腦痛恨空白。
- Forensic psychologist, expert witness
Scott Fraser is a forensic psychologist who thinks deeply about the fallibility of human memory and encourages a more scientific approach to trial evidence. Full bio

Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.

00:17
The murder謀殺 happened發生 a little over 21 years年份 ago,
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一件大約發生21年多前的謀殺,
00:22
January一月 the 18th, 1991,
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1991年1月18日
00:26
in a small
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有個小小的
00:29
bedroom臥室 community社區
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住宅區
00:31
of Lynwood林伍德, California加州, just a few少數 miles英里
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加州林伍市,位於洛杉磯(Los Angeles)
00:34
southeast東南 of Los洛杉磯 Angeles洛杉磯.
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沒幾里的西南郊外
00:36
A father父親 came來了 out of his house
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一個父親步出自家大門
00:39
to tell his teenage青少年 son兒子 and his five friends朋友
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告訴他十幾歲的兒子及五個朋友
00:42
that it was time for them to stop horsing胡鬧 around
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別再在門前和人行道玩鬧了,
00:45
on the front面前 lawn草坪 and on the sidewalk人行道,
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別再在門前和人行道玩鬧了,
00:48
to get home, finish their schoolwork學校工作,
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該回家寫功課,
00:51
and prepare準備 themselves他們自己 for bed.
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準備睡覺了
00:54
And as the father父親 was administering給藥 these instructions說明,
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就在說這些話的時候
00:57
a car汽車 drove開車 by, slowly慢慢地,
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一部車緩緩駛過,
01:01
and just after it passed通過 the father父親 and the teenagers青少年,
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車子經過父親和這些孩子們身邊,
01:04
a hand went out from the front面前 passenger乘客 window窗口,
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有隻手從前座乘客邊窗口伸出來,
01:08
and -- "Bam哄騙, Bam哄騙!" -- killing謀殺 the father父親.
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然後 「砰,砰」兩聲槍響,殺了那位父親。
01:13
And the car汽車 sped加快 off.
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車子隨即疾駛而去
01:16
The police警察,
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警方
01:18
investigating調查 officers長官, were amazingly令人驚訝 efficient高效.
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負責調查的員警,超有效率
01:22
They considered考慮 all the usual通常 culprits罪魁禍首,
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他們就當地不良分子裡,
01:24
and in less than 24 hours小時, they had selected their suspect疑似:
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不到24小時,就挑出了嫌犯︰
01:29
Francisco弗朗西斯科 Carrillo卡里略, a 17-year-old-歲 kid孩子
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佛藍西司科.卡瑞羅(Francisco Carrillo),一個17歲大的小伙子
01:32
who lived生活 about two or three blocks away
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他家離槍擊現場
01:34
from where the shooting射擊 occurred發生.
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不過2、3個巷子
01:37
They found發現 photos相片 of him. They prepared準備 a photo照片 array排列,
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警方拿他的照片,準備照片指認。
01:42
and the day after the shooting射擊,
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案發隔天,
01:45
they showed顯示 it to one of the teenagers青少年, and he said,
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拿給案發現場的青少年之一指認,他說:
01:48
"That's the picture圖片.
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「就是這照片上的人!」
01:50
That's the shooter射手 I saw that killed殺害 the father父親."
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「這就是我看到的殺了我朋友父親的槍手!」
01:56
That was all a preliminary初步 hearing聽力 judge法官 had
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審前指控聽證庭的法官就憑這句話
01:58
to listen to, to bind捆綁 Mr先生. Carrillo卡里略 over to stand trial審訊
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判定卡瑞羅先生應受審判
02:04
for a first-degree第一級 murder謀殺.
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罪名為一級謀殺。
02:06
In the investigation調查 that followed其次 before the actual實際 trial審訊,
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正式庭審前的偵查裡,
02:09
each of the other five teenagers青少年 was shown顯示
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在場的五個青少年都看了同一組照片。
02:13
photographs照片, the same相同 photo照片 array排列.
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在場的五個青少年都看了同一組照片。
02:17
The picture圖片 that we best最好 can determine確定 was probably大概
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這組大頭照裡,你們看到的左下角那張,最可能就是警方放進指認照片組那張
02:20
the one that they were shown顯示 in the photo照片 array排列
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這組大頭照裡,你們看到的左下角那張,最可能就是警方放進指認照片組那張
02:22
is in your bottom底部 left hand corner of these mug shots鏡頭.
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這組大頭照裡,你們看到的左下角那張,最可能就是警方放進指認照片組那張
02:26
The reason原因 we're not sure absolutely絕對 is because
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我們之所以無法絕對肯定
02:29
of the nature性質 of evidence證據 preservation保存
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源自於我們司法體系
02:34
in our judicial司法 system系統,
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保存證據的方式,
02:36
but that's another另一個 whole整個 TEDx的TEDx talk for later後來. (Laughter笑聲)
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但這可以是日後另一個TEDx 演說題目。(笑聲)
02:41
So at the actual實際 trial審訊,
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實際審判的時候
02:44
all six of the teenagers青少年 testified作證,
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6個孩子都上台作證,
02:47
and indicated指示 the identifications標識 they had made製作
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並由指認相片中指出兇嫌。
02:50
in the photo照片 array排列.
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並由指認相片中指出兇嫌。
02:54
He was convicted被定罪. He was sentenced判刑 to life imprisonment徒刑,
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卡瑞羅先生被定罪,被判終身監禁
02:59
and transported to Folsom福爾瑟姆 Prison監獄.
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並送到佛森(Folsom)監獄服刑。
03:04
So what's wrong錯誤?
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有問題嗎?
03:06
Straightforward直截了當, fair公平 trial審訊, full充分 investigation調查.
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一切直截了當,公平審判,完整的調查。
03:11
Oh yes, no gun was ever found發現.
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對了,沒找到凶槍。
03:14
No vehicle車輛 was ever identified確定 as being存在 the one
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沒找到那輛手伸出窗外的兇車,
03:19
in which哪一個 the shooter射手 had extended擴展 his arm,
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沒找到那輛手伸出窗外的兇車,
03:22
and no person was ever charged帶電 with being存在 the driver司機
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也沒找到兇車的駕駛。
03:25
of the shooter's射手的 vehicle車輛.
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也沒找到兇車的駕駛。
03:28
And Mr先生. Carrillo's卡里略的 alibi託辭?
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至於卡瑞羅先生的不在場證明呢?
03:32
Which哪一個 of those parents父母 here in the room房間 might威力 not lie謊言
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你們當中哪一位身為父母的
03:37
concerning關於 the whereabouts下落 of your son兒子 or daughter女兒
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在涉嫌凶殺案件的調查中
03:40
in an investigation調查 of a killing謀殺?
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不會為兒女案發當時行蹤說謊?
03:46
Sent發送 to prison監獄,
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他被送到監獄服刑
03:49
adamantly堅決 insisting堅持 on his innocence無辜,
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一直強烈堅持自己無辜
03:52
which哪一個 he has consistently始終如一 for 21 years年份.
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一直堅持了21年
03:57
So what's the problem問題?
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怎麼回事?
04:01
The problems問題, actually其實, for this kind of case案件
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這個問題,實際上,這類型的案件,
04:03
come manyfold成倍 from decades幾十年 of scientific科學 research研究
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有問題都是因為數十年來的科學研究
04:07
involving涉及 human人的 memory記憶.
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關於人類記憶的研究的挑戰。
04:11
First of all, we have all the statistical統計 analyses分析
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首先,我們有詳盡的統計資料
04:14
from the Innocence無辜 Project項目 work,
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來自「拯救錯判」計畫(Innocence Project)
04:16
where we know that we have, what,
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從中,我們記錄了,多少件?
04:19
250, 280 documented記錄 cases now where people have
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25萬又280件案件,都是錯誤判決
04:23
been wrongfully非法 convicted被定罪 and subsequently後來 exonerated免除,
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而在事後被平反的案件,
04:27
some from death死亡 row, on the basis基礎 of later後來 DNA脫氧核糖核酸 analysis分析,
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有些人由於後續的DNA證據,自死刑邊緣被救回
04:33
and you know that over three quarters住處 of all of those cases
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而我們發現,所有翻案案件,有四分之三,
04:37
of exoneration免責 involved參與 only eyewitness目擊者 identification鑑定
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在受審時僅是根據目擊者的指證
04:43
testimony見證 during the trial審訊 that convicted被定罪 them.
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就遭定罪。
04:47
We know that eyewitness目擊者 identifications標識 are fallible易錯的.
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我們知道目擊者的指證並不可靠。
04:52
The other comes from an interesting有趣 aspect方面
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其他(非DNA)都來自於
04:54
of human人的 memory記憶 that's related有關 to various各個 brain functions功能
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和不同大腦的功能都有關 ,但相關記憶的一個有趣面向
04:57
but I can sum up for the sake清酒 of brevity簡短 here
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但為了簡潔起見,
05:00
in a simple簡單 line:
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我可以用一句話來概括 -
05:02
The brain abhors痛恨 a vacuum真空.
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「腦子痛恨空白」
05:07
Under the best最好 of observation意見 conditions條件,
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最棒的觀察條件下
05:11
the absolute絕對 best最好,
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絕對的最清晰狀況
05:13
we only detect檢測, encode編碼 and store商店 in our brains大腦
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我們對眼前的經歷經察覺,編排,然後記錄在大腦裡的
05:17
bits and pieces of the entire整個 experience經驗 in front面前 of us,
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只有支離破碎的片段,
05:20
and they're stored存儲 in different不同 parts部分 of the brain.
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而這些片段儲存在大腦中不同部位。
05:23
So now, when it's important重要 for us to be able能夠 to recall召回
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所以,當我們必須要回憶
05:27
what it was that we experienced有經驗的,
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我們所經歷的事件時,
05:30
we have an incomplete殘缺, we have a partial局部 store商店,
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我們記得並不完全, 我們只記得一部份,
05:35
and what happens發生?
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然後呢?
05:37
Below下面 awareness意識, with no requirement需求 for any kind of
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不知不覺地,不必有任何動機
05:40
motivated動機 processing處理, the brain fills填充 in information信息
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大腦就會自行對記憶空白處
05:45
that was not there,
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補白,
05:48
not originally本來 stored存儲,
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原來並未儲存的記憶,
05:50
from inference推理, from speculation推測,
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只是透過推理,猜想,
05:53
from sources來源 of information信息 that came來了 to you,
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來自於其他源頭的片段,
05:56
as the observer觀察者, after the observation意見.
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在事後,就當時立場。
05:59
But it happens發生 without awareness意識 such這樣 that
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但這一切都是不知不覺
06:01
you don't, aren't even cognizant認識 of it occurring發生.
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你根本就不知道有這回事。
06:05
It's called reconstructed重建 memories回憶.
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我們稱之為「記憶重建」。
06:07
It happens發生 to us in all the aspects方面 of our life, all the time.
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我們一輩子,任何事,任何時間,都受記憶重建影響
06:11
It was those two considerations注意事項, among其中 others其他 --
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就是因為記憶重建以及易產生錯誤的目擊者
06:14
reconstructed重建 memory記憶, the fact事實 about the eyewitness目擊者 fallibility易錯 --
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這兩個理由以及其他因素,
06:19
that was part部分 of the instigation唆使
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引發了一群上訴律師採取行動
06:22
for a group of appeal上訴 attorneys律師
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引發了一群上訴律師採取行動
06:24
led by an amazing驚人 lawyer律師 named命名 Ellen艾倫 Eggers埃格斯
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由一名很棒的律師愛倫愛格兒(Ellen Eggers)帶領
06:28
to pool their experience經驗 and their talents人才 together一起
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集合他們的才幹及經驗,向高等上訴法院申請
06:32
and petition請願 a superior優越 court法庭
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集合他們的才幹及經驗,向高等上訴法院申請
06:34
for a retrial再審 for Francisco弗朗西斯科 Carrillo卡里略.
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重審佛藍西司科.卡瑞羅的案子
06:39
They retained保留 me, as a forensic法庭的 neurophysiologist神經生理學家,
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他們聘我為該案的神經醫學專家證人,
06:43
because I had expertise專門知識
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因為我有處理有關目擊者指認和記憶有關問題
06:45
in eyewitness目擊者 memory記憶 identification鑑定,
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的專業知識。
06:48
which哪一個 obviously明顯 makes品牌 sense for this case案件, right?
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處理這個案子很合理,對吧?
06:51
But also because I have expertise專門知識 and testify作證 about
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但也因為我也對人類夜視能力本質很孰悉
06:54
the nature性質 of human人的 night vision視力.
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也就此做過法庭專家證人。
06:58
Well, what's that got to do with this?
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咦,這案子和夜視有關?
07:01
Well, when you read through通過 the case案件 materials物料
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對,只要你詳讀有關
07:05
in this Carrillo卡里略 case案件,
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卡瑞羅案的檔案
07:07
one of the things that suddenly突然 strikes罷工 you is that
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有件事該會引起你注意
07:10
the investigating調查 officers長官 said the lighting燈光 was good
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調查員警說
07:14
at the crime犯罪 scene現場, at the shooting射擊.
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凶案發生時,現場光線充足。
07:17
All the teenagers青少年 testified作證 during the trial審訊
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審判時,所有作證的孩子們
07:21
that they could see very well.
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都說他們當晚能看的清楚。
07:24
But this occurred發生 in mid-January一月中旬,
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但這兇殺發生於一月中旬,
07:27
in the Northern北方 Hemisphere半球, at 7 p.m. at night.
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這可是北半球,晚上7點。
07:33
So when I did the calculations計算
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所以我仔細計算,
07:36
for the lunar太陰 data數據 and the solar太陽能 data數據
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當時地球上的案發現場相關的太陽及月球的資料。
07:38
at that location位置 on Earth地球 at the time of the incident事件
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當時地球上的案發現場相關的太陽及月球的資料。
07:42
of the shooting射擊, all right,
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當時地球上的案發現場相關的太陽及月球的資料。
07:44
it was well past過去 the end結束 of civil國內 twilight
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早就過了民用曙暮光(civil twilight)的時分
07:46
and there was no moon月亮 up that night.
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當晚也沒有月光。
07:48
So all the light in this area from the sun太陽 and the moon月亮
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所以在該區當時所有來自太陽或月亮折射的光線
07:51
is what you see on the screen屏幕 right here.
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差不多就像你在銀幕上看到的一樣。
07:53
The only lighting燈光 in that area had to come
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當場所有的光線
07:56
from artificial人造 sources來源,
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應該全部來自人工光源,
08:00
and that's where I go out and I do the actual實際 reconstruction重建
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所以我回到現場,用感光表,及其他儀器
08:02
of the scene現場 with photometers光度計, with various各個 measures措施
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合成不同亮度,以及顏色色溫
08:05
of illumination照明 and various各個 other measures措施 of
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以重建現場光亮情形
08:07
color顏色 perception知覺, along沿 with special特別 cameras相機
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使用特殊照相機
08:12
and high-speed高速 film電影, right?
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高速底片,記錄這些重建的結果
08:14
Take all the measurements測量 and record記錄 them, right?
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各種數據下,重建現場,然後記錄這些組合.
08:17
And then take photographs照片, and this is what the scene現場
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我照了一堆相片,
08:19
looked看著 like at the time of the shooting射擊
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這張照片顯示槍擊當時
08:20
from the position位置 of the teenagers青少年
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從這些少年的位置看起來的樣子
08:23
looking at the car汽車 going by and shooting射擊.
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看著車子,以及開槍的人的方向
08:26
This is looking directly across橫過 the street
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這是直接看到對街的情況
08:29
from where they were standing常設.
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從他們所在地看過去。
08:31
Remember記得, the investigating調查 officers'長官' report報告 said
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記住,調查員警的報告上說
08:33
the lighting燈光 was good.
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現場光線良好。
08:36
The teenagers青少年 said they could see very well.
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孩子們也說他們可以看的很清楚。
08:38
This is looking down to the east,
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這張向東邊看過去,
08:41
where the shooting射擊 vehicle車輛 sped加快 off,
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犯案車輛逃逸的方向,
08:45
and this is the lighting燈光 directly behind背後 the father父親
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這是來自被槍擊父親,那些孩子們
08:50
and the teenagers青少年.
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身後的光線。
08:52
As you can see, it is at best最好 poor較差的.
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你們可以看到,最多只能說光線昏暗。
08:56
No one's那些 going to call this well-lit明亮, good lighting燈光,
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沒人會說這是光線充足,明亮,
09:00
and in fact事實, as nice不錯 as these pictures圖片 are,
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而實際上這些照片都很清楚,
09:03
and the reason原因 we take them is I knew知道 I was going to have to testify作證 in court法庭,
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我拍這些照片是為了要用在法庭上作證時使用,
09:07
and a picture圖片 is worth價值 more than a thousand words
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一張照片比1000個字還有用,
09:10
when you're trying to communicate通信 numbers數字,
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當你要傳達一大堆的數字,
09:12
abstract抽象 concepts概念 like lux勒克司, the international國際 measurement測量
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以及抽象概念 - 亮度,國際標準亮度值
09:16
of illumination照明, the Ishihara石原 color顏色 perception知覺 test測試 values.
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衣胥哈拉顏色認知表測試值等。
09:21
When you present當下 those to people who are not well-versed精通
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當你對這些非專業的人講這些東西時
09:24
in those aspects方面 of science科學 and that, they become成為
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又是科學又是什麼的等等,
09:27
salamanders蠑螈 in the noonday sun太陽. It's like
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他們就變成正午陽光下的蠑螈。
09:29
talking about the tangent切線 of the visual視覺 angle角度, all right?
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這好像是討論視角的斜切值,
09:32
Their eyes眼睛 just glaze over, all right?
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他們就只會翻白眼。
09:35
A good forensic法庭的 expert專家 also has to be a good educator教育家,
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一個好的法庭證據專家也該是個好教育家
09:39
a good communicator傳播者, and that's part部分 of the reason原因
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好的溝通者,這也是為什麼,
09:42
why we take the pictures圖片, to show顯示 not only
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我們照這些相片,好讓他們
09:44
where the light sources來源 are, and what we call the spill,
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可以親眼看見當時的光源,以及我們說的漏光,
09:47
the distribution分配, but also so that it's easier更輕鬆
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光線分布等,也是為了方便
09:49
for the trier特里爾 of fact事實 to understand理解 the circumstances情況.
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讓那些陪審團的人容易了解狀況。
09:53
So these are some of the pictures圖片 that, in fact事實,
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這些就是我在審判時,
09:56
I used when I testified作證,
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2415
實際使用的照片,
09:59
but more importantly重要的 were, to me as a scientist科學家,
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1865
但更重要的,就一個科學家來說,
10:01
are those readings讀數, the photometer光度計 readings讀數,
177
585148
1983
這些測得的數值,感光表讀數,
10:03
which哪一個 I can then convert兌換 into actual實際 predictions預測
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我可以把這些數值轉換成實際預測
10:07
of the visual視覺 capability能力 of the human人的 eye
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來反映當時人類眼睛視覺能力
10:11
under those circumstances情況,
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在那些狀況下
10:13
and from my readings讀數 that I recorded記錄 at the scene現場
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以及利用當時太陽及月亮資料數值,重建現場的
10:17
under the same相同 solar太陽能 and lunar太陰 conditions條件
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重建現場的不同的照片
10:19
at the same相同 time, so on and so forth向前, right,
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在同樣時間,同樣的暮光,月光情形等等
10:22
I could predict預測
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1406
我可以預測
10:23
that there would be no reliable可靠 color顏色 perception知覺,
185
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2192
當時不可能有可靠的辨色能力,
10:26
which哪一個 is crucial關鍵 for face面對 recognition承認,
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這對臉孔辨識非常重要,
10:28
and that there would be only scotopic vision視力,
187
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2312
當時只可能有暗視覺,
10:30
which哪一個 means手段 there would be very little resolution解析度,
188
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1960
也就是說在那時對於任何形狀,只有非常低的解析度,
10:32
what we call boundary邊界 or edge邊緣 detection發現,
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無法辨別形狀,東西的邊緣
10:34
and that furthermore此外, because the eyes眼睛 would have been
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2315
此外,因為在那種光線下
10:37
totally完全 dilated擴張 under this light, the depth深度 of field領域,
191
621254
3805
瞳孔已經完全放大,人眼的景深,
10:40
the distance距離 at which哪一個 you can focus焦點 and see details細節,
192
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也就是我們能聚焦看清楚的距離,
10:44
would have been less than 18 inches英寸 away.
193
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只有18英吋不到。(約46公分)
10:49
I testified作證 to that to the court法庭,
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2504
作證時我說明這些,
10:52
and while the judge法官 was very attentive細心,
195
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2433
法官聽的很仔細,
10:54
it had been a very, very long hearing聽力
196
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儘管當時申請重審聽證會已經進行很久,
10:57
for this petition請願 for a retrial再審, and as a result結果,
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結果呢,
11:01
I noticed注意到 out of the corner of my eye
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1760
我注意到,
11:03
that I thought that maybe the judge法官 was going to need
199
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可能還得再多拱法官一下
11:07
a little more of a nudge微調
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可能還得再多拱法官一下
11:09
than just more numbers數字.
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2508
而非引用更多的數據。
11:12
And here I became成為 a bit audacious膽大,
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我膽子變大了,
11:14
and I turned轉身
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我轉身對法官說,
11:16
and I asked the judge法官,
204
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2392
我轉身對法官說,
11:18
I said, "Your Honor榮譽, I think you should go out
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2408
「法官大人,我想你該去
11:20
and look at the scene現場 yourself你自己."
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2704
實地現場勘查。」
11:23
Now I may可能 have used a tone which哪一個 was more like a dare
207
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3141
我大概當時聽起來應該是挑戰法官
11:26
than a request請求 — (Laughter笑聲) —
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2404
而不是請求他 -- (笑聲)--
11:29
but nonetheless儘管如此,, it's to this man's男人的 credit信用 and his courage勇氣
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4447
但這個法官真有他的,有膽識
11:33
that he said, "Yes, I will."
210
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3616
他說:「好,我會去!」
11:37
A shocker令人震驚 in American美國 jurisprudence法理.
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這是美國司法一大震驚。
11:41
So in fact事實, we found發現 the same相同 identical相同 conditions條件,
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所以,我們找了和案發時同樣情形的時候,
11:43
we reconstructed重建 the entire整個 thing again,
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2041
重建整個現場,
11:45
he came來了 out with an entire整個 brigade of sheriff's警長 officers長官
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他在重重警力戒護下來到現場
11:49
to protect保護 him in this community社區, all right? (Laughter笑聲)
215
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5157
因為當地治安不好,不是嗎? (笑聲)
11:54
We had him stand actually其實 slightly in the street,
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5054
我們讓他站在街上,
11:59
so closer接近 to the suspect疑似 vehicle車輛, the shooter射手 vehicle車輛,
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離嫌犯車輛,槍手坐的車的軌跡近些,
12:03
than the actual實際 teenagers青少年 were,
218
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比那些孩子們當時站在的地方還要近,
12:05
so he stood站在 a few少數 feet from the curb抑制
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2224
所以他站在街邊幾尺處
12:08
toward the middle中間 of the street.
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面向街道。
12:10
We had a car汽車 that came來了 by,
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我們安排一輛車駛過,
12:13
same相同 identical相同 car汽車 as described描述 by the teenagers青少年, right?
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和孩子們的描述的一模一樣的車,
12:18
It had a driver司機 and a passenger乘客,
223
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1937
有司機,還有一名乘客,
12:20
and after the car汽車 had passed通過 the judge法官 by,
224
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3823
車子經過法官身旁後,
12:24
the passenger乘客 extended擴展 his hand,
225
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3514
乘客伸出手來,
12:27
pointed it back to the judge法官 as the car汽車 continued繼續 on,
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4574
車子一邊走,他一邊回指法官,
12:32
just as the teenagers青少年 had described描述 it, right?
227
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2219
就如同孩子們描述的現場狀況,
12:34
Now, he didn't use a real真實 gun in his hand,
228
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2853
當然,他手上沒真槍,
12:37
so he had a black黑色 object目的 in his hand that was similar類似
229
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2418
他用一個與孩子們形容的槍一樣黑物件。
12:39
to the gun that was described描述.
230
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1979
他用一個與孩子們形容的槍一樣黑物件。
12:41
He pointed by, and this is what the judge法官 saw.
231
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2846
車子邊走,槍一邊對著法官,這是法官看到的
12:44
This is the car汽車 30 feet away from the judge法官.
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離他30英尺遠。
12:51
There's an arm sticking癥結 out of the passenger乘客 side
233
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2912
一隻手從車前乘客邊伸出
12:54
and pointed back at you.
234
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2373
回指向你。
12:57
That's 30 feet away.
235
761198
1965
這是30英尺外。
12:59
Some of the teenagers青少年 said that in fact事實 the car汽車
236
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2192
有些孩子說槍擊時
13:01
was 15 feet away when it shot射擊.
237
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2576
應該是15英尺。
13:03
Okay. There's 15 feet.
238
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3664
好,這是15英尺。
13:07
At this point, I became成為 a little concerned關心.
239
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4170
此時,我有些許擔心了。
13:11
This judge法官 is someone有人 you'd never want to play poker撲克 with.
240
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4734
你絕不想和這法官一起打撲克牌。
13:16
He was totally完全 stoic堅忍. I couldn't不能 see a twitch抽搐 of his eyebrow.
241
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4288
他動都不動,眉毛一下也不揚。
13:20
I couldn't不能 see the slightest絲毫 bend彎曲 of his head.
242
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3269
他的頭連輕微的彎一下都沒有。
13:23
I had no sense of how he was reacting反應 to this,
243
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3501
我完全無法判斷他的反應,
13:27
and after he looked看著 at this reenactment重演,
244
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3040
他看完了現場重現後,
13:30
he turned轉身 to me and he says,
245
794597
1080
他轉過來問我,
13:31
"Is there anything else其他 you want me to look at?"
246
795677
3258
「還要我看什麼?」
13:34
I said, "Your honor榮譽," and I don't know whether是否 I was
247
798935
4495
我說:「法官大人」,也不知道是因為
13:39
emboldened底氣 by the scientific科學 measurements測量 that I had
248
803430
2957
這些在我口袋裡精確的科學數據讓我變大膽了,
13:42
in my pocket口袋 and my knowledge知識 that they are accurate準確,
249
806387
3696
這些在我口袋裡精確的科學數據讓我變大膽了,
13:45
or whether是否 it was just sheer絕對 stupidity糊塗事,
250
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2255
還是我只是就是蠢
13:48
which哪一個 is what the defense防禦 lawyers律師 thought — (Laughter笑聲) —
251
812338
2825
其他辯護律師都認為我蠢 --(笑聲)--
13:51
when they heard聽說 me say,
252
815163
1752
當他們聽到我說什麼的時候
13:52
"Yes, Your Honor榮譽, I want you stand right there
253
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2704
「對,法官大人,我要你站在這兒
13:55
and I want the car汽車 to go around the block again
254
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4336
我會讓車子再轉回來
13:59
and I want it to come and I want it to stop
255
823955
3354
我會讓車子開過來,然後停下來
14:03
right in front面前 of you, three to four feet away,
256
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4190
就停在你面前,3或4英尺外
14:07
and I want the passenger乘客 to extend延伸 his hand
257
831499
3456
然後我要乘客伸出手
14:10
with a black黑色 object目的 and point it right at you,
258
834955
2016
用那個黑色假槍指著你,
14:12
and you can look at it as long as you want."
259
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5720
你可以盯著看,看多久都好」
14:18
And that's what he saw. (Laughter笑聲)
260
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4427
這是他所看到的 (笑聲)
14:23
You'll你會 notice注意, which哪一個 was also in my test測試 report報告,
261
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3840
你會注意到,我也在我的報告中指出,
14:26
all the dominant優勢 lighting燈光 is coming未來 from the north side,
262
850958
2645
所有較亮的光線都來自北邊,
14:29
which哪一個 means手段 that the shooter's射手的 face面對 would
263
853603
1743
也就是說槍手的臉,
14:31
have been photo-occluded照片閉塞. It would have been backlit背光.
264
855346
2616
在視覺中會光線不足,也就是背光。
14:33
Furthermore此外, the roof屋頂 of the car汽車
265
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1902
此外,車頂會形成所謂的陰影雲,使得車內更暗。
14:35
is causing造成 what we call a shadow陰影 cloud inside the car汽車
266
859864
4274
此外,車頂會形成所謂的陰影雲,使得車內更暗。
14:40
which哪一個 is making製造 it darker.
267
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3330
此外,車頂會形成所謂的陰影雲,使得車內更暗。
14:43
And this is three to four feet away.
268
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4112
這是3,4英尺外。
14:47
Why did I take the risk風險?
269
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3128
我為什麼冒險?
14:50
I knew知道 that the depth深度 of field領域 was 18 inches英寸 or less.
270
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4229
我知道在當時狀態下人眼景深不到18英吋。
14:54
Three to four feet, it might威力 as well have been
271
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1667
3 或 4 英尺,和從足球場一端看到另一端沒什麼兩樣。
14:56
a football足球 field領域 away.
272
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3 或 4 英尺,和從足球場一端看到另一端沒什麼兩樣。
15:00
This is what he saw.
273
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2208
這是他所見到的。
15:03
He went back, there was a few少數 more days of evidence證據
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3800
他回去了,證據聽證會又開了幾天
15:06
that was heard聽說. At the end結束 of it,
275
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2304
在結束的時候,
15:09
he made製作 the judgment判斷 that he was going to grant發放
276
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2628
他批准了
15:11
the petition請願 for a retrial再審.
277
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3078
重審的申請。
15:14
And furthermore此外, he released發布 Mr先生. Carrillo卡里略
278
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此外,他還釋放了卡瑞羅先生,
15:17
so that he could aid援助 in the preparation製備 of his own擁有 defense防禦
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若檢察官決定要重審,也好讓他能回家準備這個案件,
15:20
if the prosecution檢察官 decided決定 to retry重試 him.
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若檢察官決定要重審,也好讓他能回家準備這個案件,
15:26
Which哪一個 they decided決定 not to.
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結果檢察官決定不重審
15:28
He is now a freed釋放 man. (Applause掌聲)
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他被釋放了(掌聲)
15:33
(Applause掌聲)
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(掌聲)
15:37
This is him embracing擁抱 his grandmother-in-law祖母在法律.
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這張照片裡,他擁抱他太太的祖母。
15:42
He -- His girlfriend女朋友 was pregnant when he went to trial審訊,
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他的女友在他受審時已懷孕,
15:46
right? And she had a little baby寶寶 boy男孩.
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生下了小男生。
15:51
He and his son兒子 are both attending出席 Cal卡爾 State, Long Beach海灘
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他和他兒子現在都就讀於加州大學(Cal State)長灘(Long Beach)校區
15:53
right now taking服用 classes. (Applause掌聲)
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兩個現在都在上課(掌聲)。
15:59
And what does this example --
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這個例子 -
16:03
what's important重要 to keep in mind心神 for ourselves我們自己?
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教我們什麼寶貴的教訓?
16:08
First of all, there's a long history歷史 of antipathy反感
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首先,長久以來在美國的司法環境
16:11
between之間 science科學 and the law
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科學與法律一直不相容。
16:14
in American美國 jurisprudence法理.
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科學與法律一直不相容。
16:16
I could regale款待 you with horror恐怖 stories故事 of ignorance無知
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我可以告訴你很多很多出於無知的恐怖故事,
16:19
over decades幾十年 of experience經驗 as a forensic法庭的 expert專家
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全都來自於我幾十年來從事法庭專家證人
16:24
of just trying to get science科學 into the courtroom法庭.
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嘗試把科學帶進法庭的經驗。
16:28
The opposing反對 council評議會 always fight鬥爭 it and oppose反對 it.
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對方律師總是反對,百般阻撓。
16:33
One suggestion建議 is that all of us become成為 much more
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有個建議,就是我們全都應該
16:37
attuned合拍 to the necessity必要性, through通過 policy政策,
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接受更多的科學進入法律領域
16:39
through通過 procedures程序,
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這是必要的,透過政策,
16:41
to get more science科學 in the courtroom法庭,
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透過恰當程序,
16:45
and I think one large step toward that
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完成做這件事的一大步。
16:47
is more requirements要求,
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就是增加要求
16:49
with all due應有 respect尊重 to the law schools學校,
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讓法學院把科學,
16:51
of science科學, technology技術, engineering工程, mathematics數學
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科技,工程,數學納入必修課程
16:56
for anyone任何人 going into the law,
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要求每個法律學生修習
16:58
because they become成為 the judges法官.
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因為這些學生將來會成為法官。
17:02
Think about how we select選擇 our judges法官 in this country國家.
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想想在美國我們如何選擇法官?
17:05
It's very different不同 than most other cultures文化. All right?
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和其他多數文化大不相同,不是嗎?
17:08
The other one that I want to suggest建議,
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另一件我建議的事:
17:11
the caution警告 that all of us have to have,
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我們全部都得小心
17:13
I constantly經常 have to remind提醒 myself,
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我一直提醒自己
17:15
about just how accurate準確 are the memories回憶
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記憶並不精確,
17:18
that we know are true真正, that we believe in?
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不管是那些我們認為是真的,或是我們信任的記憶。
17:24
There is decades幾十年 of research研究,
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幾十年來的研究,
17:27
examples例子 and examples例子 of cases like this,
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無數與此相似的案例,
17:31
where individuals個人
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正都是人們都是這麼信任自己的記憶。
17:33
really, really believe. None沒有 of those teenagers青少年
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這些孩子們。
17:37
who identified確定 him
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指認兇嫌時
17:38
thought that they were picking選擇 the wrong錯誤 person.
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沒人會認為自己會認錯人。
17:42
None沒有 of them thought they couldn't不能 see the person's人的 face面對.
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沒有一個認為自己會看不清楚那個人的臉
17:45
We all have to be very careful小心.
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我們都得非常小心
17:47
All our memories回憶 are reconstructed重建 memories回憶.
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我們所有的記憶都經過重建
17:51
They are the product產品 of what we originally本來 experienced有經驗的
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它們來自我們的原始經驗
17:53
and everything that's happened發生 afterwards之後.
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以及事後所有的經驗。
17:56
They're dynamic動態.
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這些記憶是動態的。
17:58
They're malleable可鍛鑄. They're volatile揮發物,
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可以不斷修改,不穩定,
18:01
and as a result結果, we all need to remember記得 to be cautious謹慎,
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結果呢,我們都要記得對於我們的經驗精確度
18:05
that the accuracy準確性 of our memories回憶
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要謹慎小心,
18:08
is not measured測量 in how vivid生動 they are
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不在於我們記得多清晰
18:11
nor也不 how certain某些 you are that they're correct正確.
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也不在我們多確定它們有多正確。
18:17
Thank you. (Applause掌聲)
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謝謝。 (掌聲)
Translated by Barry Hu
Reviewed by Nan-Kun Wu

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ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Scott Fraser - Forensic psychologist, expert witness
Scott Fraser is a forensic psychologist who thinks deeply about the fallibility of human memory and encourages a more scientific approach to trial evidence.

Why you should listen

When it comes to witnesses in criminal trials, the accuracy of human memory can mean the difference between life and death. Scott Fraser is an expert witness who researches what’s real and what’s selective when it comes to human memory and crime. His areas of expertise include human night vision, neuropsychopharmacology, and the effect of stress and other factors on the human mind. He has testified in criminal and civil cases throughout the U.S. in state and federal courts.

In 2011 Fraser was involved in the retrial of a 1992 murder case in which Francisco Carrillo was found guilty and sentenced to two life sentences in prison. Fraser and the team that hired him staged a dramatic reenactment of the night of the murder in question and showed the testimonies that had put Carrillo in jail were unreliable. After 20 years in jail for a crime he didn't commit, Carrillo was freed.

More profile about the speaker
Scott Fraser | Speaker | TED.com