TED2014
Rob Knight: How our microbes make us who we are
Rob Knight: Ako mikróby určujú, kto sme
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Rob Knight je priekopník výskumu ľudských mikróbov, komunity malých jednobunkových organizmov, ktoré žijú v našich telách a majú obrovský – a z veľkej časti nepreskúmaný – vplyv na naše zdravie. „Necelého jeden a pol kila mikróbov, čo so sebou nosíte, môže mať väčší dopad než každý gén vo vašom genóme,“ hovorí. Zistite prečo.
Rob Knight - Microbial ecologist
Rob Knight explores the unseen microbial world that exists literally right under our noses -- and everywhere else on (and in) our bodies. Full bio
Rob Knight explores the unseen microbial world that exists literally right under our noses -- and everywhere else on (and in) our bodies. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:13
We humans have always been very concerned
about the health of our bodies,
about the health of our bodies,
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My ľudia sme sa vždy strachovali
o zdravie svojich tiel,
o zdravie svojich tiel,
00:17
but we haven't always been that good
at figuring out what's important.
at figuring out what's important.
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ale nie vždy sme dokázali
rozlíšiť, čo je dôležité.
rozlíšiť, čo je dôležité.
00:21
Take the ancient Egyptians, for example:
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Napríklad starí Egypťania:
00:23
very concerned about the body parts
they thought they'd need in the afterlife,
they thought they'd need in the afterlife,
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veľmi dbali o telesné orgány
údajne potrebné v posmrtnom živote,
údajne potrebné v posmrtnom živote,
00:27
but they left some parts out.
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ale niektoré časti vynechali.
00:29
This part, for example.
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Napríklad toto.
00:32
Although they very carefully
preserved the stomach, the lungs,
preserved the stomach, the lungs,
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Veľmi starostlivo
uchovávali žalúdok, pľúca,
uchovávali žalúdok, pľúca,
00:35
the liver, and so forth,
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pečeň a tak ďalej,
00:36
they just mushed up the brain,
drained it out through the nose,
drained it out through the nose,
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ale mozog rozdrvili na kašu,
vytiahli cez nos
vytiahli cez nos
00:39
and threw it away,
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a vyhodili,
00:41
which makes sense, really,
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čo dáva zmysel,
00:42
because what does a brain
do for us anyway?
do for us anyway?
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však načo by
nám bol mozog?
nám bol mozog?
00:45
But imagine if there were a kind
of neglected organ in our bodies
of neglected organ in our bodies
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Ale predstavte si, že by sme
mali v tele opomenutý orgán,
mali v tele opomenutý orgán,
00:48
that weighed just as much as the brain
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vážiaci rovnako ako mozog
00:50
and in some ways was just
as important to who we are,
as important to who we are,
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a v istom zmysle
rovnako určujúci, kto sme,
rovnako určujúci, kto sme,
00:53
but we knew so little about
and treated with such disregard.
and treated with such disregard.
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ale vedeli by sme o ňom len málo
a nevážili by sme si ho.
a nevážili by sme si ho.
00:57
And imagine if,
through new scientific advances,
through new scientific advances,
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A predstavte si, že by sme
pomocou vedeckého pokroku
pomocou vedeckého pokroku
01:00
we were just beginning to understand
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práve začínali rozumieť
01:01
its importance to how
we think of ourselves.
we think of ourselves.
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jeho úlohe pri ponímaní
samých seba.
samých seba.
01:04
Wouldn't you want to know more about it?
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Nechceli by ste sa o tom dozvedieť viac?
01:07
Well, it turns out that we do
have something just like that:
have something just like that:
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Ukázalo sa, že fakt niečo takého máme:
01:10
our gut,
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črevá,
01:12
or rather, its microbes.
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alebo skôr črevné mikróby.
01:15
But it's not just the microbes
in our gut that are important.
in our gut that are important.
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Ale nie len črevné mikróby sú dôležité.
01:18
Microbes all over our body
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Mikróby po celom tele
01:19
turn out to be really critical
to a whole range of differences
to a whole range of differences
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spôsobujú individuálne odlišnosti,
01:22
that make different people who we are.
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ktoré robia ľudí tým, kým sú.
01:25
So for example, have you ever noticed
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Všimli ste si napríklad,
01:27
how some people get bitten by mosquitos
way more often than others?
way more often than others?
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že komáre štípu niektorých ľudí
viac ako iných?
viac ako iných?
01:31
It turns out that everyone's anecdotal
experience out camping is actually true.
experience out camping is actually true.
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Tieto historky z kempu
sú fakt pravdivé.
sú fakt pravdivé.
Ja nebývam doštípaný,
01:36
For example, I seldom
get bitten by mosquitos,
get bitten by mosquitos,
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ale moja partnerka Amanda
ich priťahuje v húfoch,
ich priťahuje v húfoch,
01:38
but my partner Amanda
attracts them in droves,
attracts them in droves,
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01:41
and the reason why is that we have
different microbes on our skin
different microbes on our skin
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pretože každý máme
na koži iné mikróby
na koži iné mikróby
produkujúce rozdielne chemikálie,
ktoré komáre cítia.
ktoré komáre cítia.
01:44
that produce different chemicals
that the mosquitos detect.
that the mosquitos detect.
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01:48
Now, microbes are also really important
in the field of medicine.
in the field of medicine.
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Mikróby sú veľmi
dôležité aj v lekárstve.
dôležité aj v lekárstve.
01:51
So, for example, what microbes
you have in your gut
you have in your gut
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Napríklad vaša
črevná mikroflóra určuje,
črevná mikroflóra určuje,
01:54
determine whether particular painkillers
are toxic to your liver.
are toxic to your liver.
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či sú jednotlivé analgetiká
toxické pre pečeň.
toxické pre pečeň.
Tiež určujú, či vám zaberú lieky
na srdcové ťažkosti.
na srdcové ťažkosti.
01:58
They also determine whether or not other
drugs will work for your heart condition.
drugs will work for your heart condition.
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A pokiaľ ste vínna muška,
02:02
And, if you're a fruit fly, at least,
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mikróby určia,
s kým sa chcete páriť.
s kým sa chcete páriť.
02:05
your microbes determine
who you want to have sex with.
who you want to have sex with.
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02:08
We haven't demonstrated this in humans yet
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Toto sme ešte
pri ľuďoch nepreukázali,
pri ľuďoch nepreukázali,
02:10
but maybe it's just a matter of time
before we find out. (Laughter)
before we find out. (Laughter)
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ale možno je to len otázka času.
(smiech)
(smiech)
Takže mikróby majú mnoho rolí.
02:15
So microbes are performing
a huge range of functions.
a huge range of functions.
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Pomáhajú nám tráviť jedlo.
02:17
They help us digest our food.
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Pomáhajú učiť imunitný systém.
02:19
They help educate our immune system.
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Pomáhajú nám odolávať chorobám
02:21
They help us resist disease,
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a možno aj ovplyvňujú naše správanie.
02:23
and they may even
be affecting our behavior.
be affecting our behavior.
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Ako by vyzerala mapa týchto
mikrobiotických spoločenstiev?
mikrobiotických spoločenstiev?
02:26
So what would a map of all these
microbial communities look like?
microbial communities look like?
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Síce nie presne takto,
02:30
Well, it wouldn't look exactly like this,
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ale je to dobrý pomocník
pre porozumenie biodiverzite.
pre porozumenie biodiverzite.
02:32
but it's a helpful guide
for understanding biodiversity.
for understanding biodiversity.
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Rôzne časti sveta majú
rôznu skladbu organizmov,
rôznu skladbu organizmov,
02:35
Different parts of the world
have different landscapes of organisms
have different landscapes of organisms
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ktorá je pre ne bezprostredne
charakteristická
charakteristická
02:39
that are immediately characteristic
of one place or another
of one place or another
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a mení sa z miesta na miesto.
02:43
or another.
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02:45
With microbiology, it's kind of the same,
although I've got to be honest with you:
although I've got to be honest with you:
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V mikrobiológii je to podobné,
hoci, budem k vám úprimný:
hoci, budem k vám úprimný:
02:49
All the microbes essentially
look the same under a microscope.
look the same under a microscope.
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pod mikroskopom vyzerajú
mikróby prakticky rovnako.
mikróby prakticky rovnako.
02:52
So instead of trying
to identify them visually,
to identify them visually,
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Nesnažíme sa ich teda
identifikovať vizuálne,
identifikovať vizuálne,
02:55
what we do is we look
at their DNA sequences,
at their DNA sequences,
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ale pozeráme sa
na sekvencie ich DNA.
na sekvencie ich DNA.
02:57
and in a project called
the Human Microbiome Project,
the Human Microbiome Project,
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Projekt s názvom
Projekt ľudského mikrobiómu,
Projekt ľudského mikrobiómu,
03:00
NIH funded this $173 million project
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na ktorý dal 173 miliónov dolárov
americký Národný inštitút zdravia,
americký Národný inštitút zdravia,
03:04
where hundreds
of researchers came together
of researchers came together
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spojil stovky vedcov,
03:06
to map out all the A's, T's, G's, and C's,
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aby zmapovali všetky tie
Áčka, Téčka, Céčka a Géčka
Áčka, Téčka, Céčka a Géčka
03:09
and all of these microbes
in the human body.
in the human body.
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a všetky mikróby ľudského tela.
03:11
So when we take them together,
they look like this.
they look like this.
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Keď to dáme dokopy, vyzerá to takto.
03:14
It's a bit more difficult
to tell who lives where now, isn't it?
to tell who lives where now, isn't it?
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Trochu ťažšie bude určiť,
kto teda kde žije, že?
kto teda kde žije, že?
03:18
What my lab does is develop
computational techniques that allow us
computational techniques that allow us
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V mojom labáku vyvíjame
počítačové technológie,
počítačové technológie,
03:22
to take all these terabytes
of sequence data
of sequence data
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ktoré z týchto terabajtov sekvenčných dát
03:24
and turn them into something
that's a bit more useful as a map,
that's a bit more useful as a map,
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spravia niečo rozumnejšie na mapovanie.
03:27
and so when we do that
with the human microbiome data
with the human microbiome data
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Keď to spravíme s mikrobiomovými dátami
03:30
from 250 healthy volunteers,
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od 250 zdravých dobrovoľníkov,
03:32
it looks like this.
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dostaneme toto.
03:35
Each point here represents
all the complex microbes
all the complex microbes
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Každý tento bod predstavuje všetky mikróby
03:38
in an entire microbial community.
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jednej mikrobiotickej komunity.
03:40
See, I told you they basically
all look the same.
all look the same.
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Vidíte, hovoril som vám,
že vyzerajú rovnako.
že vyzerajú rovnako.
03:43
So what we're looking at is each point
represents one microbial community
represents one microbial community
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Každý bod na obrázku predstavuje
jednu mikrobiálnu komunitu
jednu mikrobiálnu komunitu
z jedného miesta v tele
jedného zdravého človeka.
jedného zdravého človeka.
03:46
from one body site
of one healthy volunteer.
of one healthy volunteer.
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03:49
And so you can see that there's different
parts of the map in different colors,
parts of the map in different colors,
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Vidíte, že rôzne časti
tejto mapy majú rôzne farby,
tejto mapy majú rôzne farby,
03:53
almost like separate continents.
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skoro ako kontinenty.
03:54
And what it turns out to be
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Ukázalo sa,
03:56
is that those, as the different
regions of the body,
regions of the body,
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že rôzne miesta v tele
03:58
have very different microbes in them.
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obsahujú rozdielne mikróby.
04:00
So what we have is we have
the oral community up there in green.
the oral community up there in green.
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Zelená predstavuje ústnu komunitu,
04:04
Over on the other side,
we have the skin community in blue,
we have the skin community in blue,
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modrá na druhej strane,
to je kožná komunita,
to je kožná komunita,
04:07
the vaginal community in purple,
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fialová je vaginálna komunita
04:09
and then right down at the bottom,
we have the fecal community in brown.
we have the fecal community in brown.
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a tá hnedá dole, to je fekálna komunita.
04:13
And we've just over the last few years
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Za posledných pár rokov sme zistili,
04:15
found out that the microbes
in different parts of the body
in different parts of the body
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že mikróby v rôznych častiach tela
04:18
are amazingly different from one another.
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sú veľmi odlišné.
04:20
So if I look at just one person's microbes
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Keď sa pozrieme na mikróby
04:23
in the mouth and in the gut,
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v ústach a črevách jedného človeka,
04:25
it turns out that the difference between
those two microbial communities
those two microbial communities
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nájdeme medzi týmito dvoma komunitami
04:28
is enormous.
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obrovské rozdiely.
04:30
It's bigger than the difference
between the microbes in this reef
between the microbes in this reef
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Väčšie ako medzi mikróbmi na tomto útese
04:33
and the microbes in this prairie.
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a na tejto stepi.
04:36
So this is incredible
when you think about it.
when you think about it.
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Je to neuveriteľné,
keď sa nad tým zamyslíte.
keď sa nad tým zamyslíte.
04:38
What it means is that a few feet
of difference in the human body
of difference in the human body
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Znamená to, že vzdialenosť
necelého metra v ľudskom tele
necelého metra v ľudskom tele
04:42
makes more of a difference
to your microbial ecology
to your microbial ecology
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predstavuje väčší rozdiel
v mikrobiálnej ekológii
v mikrobiálnej ekológii
04:44
than hundreds of miles on Earth.
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než stovky kilometrov na Zemi.
04:46
And this is not to say that two people
look basically the same
look basically the same
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Tým nehovorím, že to u dvoch ľudí
na rovnakom mieste tela
na rovnakom mieste tela
04:49
in the same body habitat, either.
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vyzerá rovnako.
04:51
So you probably heard
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Asi ste už počuli,
04:53
that we're pretty much all the same
in terms of our human DNA.
in terms of our human DNA.
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že čo sa týka ľudskej DNA,
sme si veľmi podobní.
sme si veľmi podobní.
04:56
You're 99.99 percent identical
in terms of your human DNA
in terms of your human DNA
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Z hľadiska DNA ste z 99,99 % rovnakí
05:00
to the person sitting next to you.
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ako váš sused.
05:02
But that's not true of your gut microbes:
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To sa nedá povedať
o vašej črevnej mikroflóre:
o vašej črevnej mikroflóre:
05:04
you might only share 10 percent similarity
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So susedom máte rovnakých
05:07
with the person sitting next to you
in terms of your gut microbes.
in terms of your gut microbes.
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možno len 10 % črevných mikróbov.
05:10
So that's as different
as the bacteria on this prairie
as the bacteria on this prairie
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To je rozdiel ako medzi
stepnými baktériami
stepnými baktériami
05:13
and the bacteria in this forest.
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a lesnými baktériami.
05:16
So these different microbes
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Tieto rozmanité mikróby
05:17
have all these different kinds
of functions that I told you about,
of functions that I told you about,
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majú všetky tie rôzne funkcie,
ktoré som spomínal,
ktoré som spomínal,
05:21
everything from digesting food
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od trávenia jedla
05:22
to involvement
in different kinds of diseases,
in different kinds of diseases,
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po vplyv na rôzne choroby,
05:25
metabolizing drugs, and so forth.
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metabolizáciu liekov a tak ďalej.
05:27
So how do they do all this stuff?
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Ako to všetko robia?
05:29
Well, in part it's because
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Čiastočne tým,
05:31
although there's just three pounds
of those microbes in our gut,
of those microbes in our gut,
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že hoci máme v črevách
ani nie jeden a pol kila mikróbov,
ani nie jeden a pol kila mikróbov,
05:34
they really outnumber us.
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sú početnejšie ako my.
05:36
And so how much do they outnumber us?
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V akom zmysle sú početnejšie?
05:38
Well, it depends on what
you think of as our bodies.
you think of as our bodies.
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Záleží na tom,
čo považujeme za naše telá.
čo považujeme za naše telá.
05:41
Is it our cells?
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Naše bunky?
05:43
Well, each of us consists
of about 10 trillion human cells,
of about 10 trillion human cells,
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Každý z nás pozostáva
z asi 10 biliónov ľudských buniek,
z asi 10 biliónov ľudských buniek,
05:46
but we harbor as many
as 100 trillion microbial cells.
as 100 trillion microbial cells.
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ale nosíme v sebe
až 100 biliónov mikrobiálnych buniek.
až 100 biliónov mikrobiálnych buniek.
05:49
So they outnumber us 10 to one.
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Takže nás početne prevyšujú 1:10.
05:52
Now, you might think, well,
we're human because of our DNA,
we're human because of our DNA,
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Tiež si myslíme, že sme ľudia,
lebo máme ľudskú DNA,
lebo máme ľudskú DNA,
05:56
but it turns out that each of us has
about 20,000 human genes,
about 20,000 human genes,
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ale v skutočnosti má každý z nás
asi 20 tisíc ľudských génov,
asi 20 tisíc ľudských génov,
05:59
depending on what you count exactly,
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záleží, čo presne zahrnieme,
06:01
but as many as two million
to 20 million microbial genes.
to 20 million microbial genes.
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ale 2 až 20 miliónov
mikrobiálnych génov.
mikrobiálnych génov.
06:06
So whichever way we look at it,
we're vastly outnumbered
we're vastly outnumbered
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Akokoľvek sa na to pozeráme,
naši mikrobiotickí symbionti
naši mikrobiotickí symbionti
06:08
by our microbial symbionts.
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sú vo veľkej početnej presile.
06:11
And it turns out that in addition
to traces of our human DNA,
to traces of our human DNA,
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A ukázalo sa, že popri
stopách našej ľudskej DNA
stopách našej ľudskej DNA
06:15
we also leave traces
of our microbial DNA
of our microbial DNA
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zanechávame aj stopy
našej mikrobiálnej DNA
našej mikrobiálnej DNA
06:17
on everything we touch.
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na všetkom, čoho sa dotkneme.
06:19
We showed in a study a few years ago
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V nedávnom výskume sme ukázali,
06:20
that you can actually match
the palm of someone's hand up
the palm of someone's hand up
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že sa dá priradiť konkrétna dlaň
06:23
to the computer mouse
that they use routinely
that they use routinely
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k počítačovej myši, ktorú používa,
06:25
with up to 95 percent accuracy.
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s 95 % presnosťou.
06:28
So this came out in a scientific journal
a few years ago,
a few years ago,
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Vyšlo to pred pár rokmi
vo vedeckom časopise,
vo vedeckom časopise,
06:31
but more importantly,
it was featured on "CSI: Miami,"
it was featured on "CSI: Miami,"
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ale bolo to aj v krimiseriále CSI: Miami,
06:33
so you really know it's true.
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takže to určite bude pravda.
06:35
(Laughter)
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(smiech)
06:36
So where do our microbes
come from in the first place?
come from in the first place?
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Kde sa vôbec vzali naše mikróby?
06:40
Well if, as I do, you have dogs or kids,
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Ak máte, tak ako ja,
psov alebo deti,
psov alebo deti,
06:43
you probably have
some dark suspicions about that,
some dark suspicions about that,
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asi máte isté
čierne podozrenie,
čierne podozrenie,
06:45
all of which are true, by the way.
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1979
mimochodom, správne,
06:47
So just like we can match
you to your computer equipment
you to your computer equipment
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tak ako vás vieme
priradiť k vášmu počítaču
priradiť k vášmu počítaču
06:50
by the microbes you share,
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podľa spoločných mikróbov,
06:51
we can also match you up to your dog.
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vieme vás priradiť aj k vášmu psovi.
06:54
But it turns out that in adults,
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Ukázalo sa, že u dospelých
06:56
microbial communities
are relatively stable,
are relatively stable,
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sú mikrobiálne komunity
relatívne stabilné,
relatívne stabilné,
06:58
so even if you live together with someone,
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takže aj keď s niekým žijete,
07:00
you'll maintain your separate
microbial identity
microbial identity
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udržíte si rozdielne mikrobiálne identity
07:02
over a period of weeks,
months, even years.
months, even years.
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po celé týždne, mesiace a dokonca i roky.
07:05
It turns out that our
first microbial communities
first microbial communities
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Ukázalo sa, že prvé mikrobiálne komunity
07:08
depend a lot on how we're born.
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silne závisia na tom,
ako sme sa narodili.
ako sme sa narodili.
07:11
So babies that come out
the regular way,
the regular way,
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2181
Deti, ktoré prídu na svet
prirodzeným pôrodom,
prirodzeným pôrodom,
07:13
all of their microbes are basically
like the vaginal community,
like the vaginal community,
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nesú mikróby
vaginálnej komunity,
vaginálnej komunity,
07:16
whereas babies that are
delivered by C-section,
delivered by C-section,
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zatiaľ, čo deti narodené
cisárskym rezom
cisárskym rezom
07:18
all of their microbes instead
look like skin.
look like skin.
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nesú mikróby, aké bývajú na koži.
07:21
And this might be associated
with some of the differences
with some of the differences
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To je možno príčinou istých odchýlok
07:24
in health associated with Cesarean birth,
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v zdraví detí po cisárskom reze,
07:27
such as more asthma, more allergies,
even more obesity,
even more obesity,
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ako vyšší výskyt astmy,
alergií alebo obezity,
alergií alebo obezity,
07:30
all of which have been linked
to microbes now,
to microbes now,
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tieto všetky sú spájané s mikróbmi.
07:33
and when you think about it,
until recently, every surviving mammal
until recently, every surviving mammal
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Keď sa nad tým zamyslíte,
až donedávna každý cicavec
až donedávna každý cicavec
07:37
had been delivered by the birth canal,
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prišiel na svet pôrodnými cestami
07:39
and so the lack
of those protective microbes
of those protective microbes
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a nedostatok týchto ochranných mikróbov,
07:41
that we've co-evolved with
might be really important
might be really important
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2450
s ktorými sme sa evolučne vyvíjali,
môže byť zásadný
môže byť zásadný
07:44
for a lot of these different conditions
that we now know involve the microbiome.
that we now know involve the microbiome.
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pre mnohé zdravotné problémy
ovplyvňované mikrobiómom.
ovplyvňované mikrobiómom.
07:48
When my own daughter was born
a couple of years ago
a couple of years ago
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Keď sa pred pár rokmi
moja dcéra narodila
moja dcéra narodila
07:51
by emergency C-section,
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núdzovým cisárskym rezom,
07:53
we took matters into our own hands
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zobrali sme vec do vlastných rúk
07:55
and made sure she was coated
with those vaginal microbes
with those vaginal microbes
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a zabezpečili, aby bola pokrytá
vaginálnymi mikróbmi,
vaginálnymi mikróbmi,
07:58
that she would have gotten naturally.
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ktoré by dostala prirodzenou cestou.
08:00
Now, it's really difficult to tell
whether this has had an effect
whether this has had an effect
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Nedá sa s určitosťou povedať,
či to malo vplyv
či to malo vplyv
08:03
on her health specifically, right?
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2002
na jej zdravie, že?
08:05
With a sample size of just one child,
no matter how much we love her,
no matter how much we love her,
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3681
Vzorka o veľkosti jedného dieťaťa,
hoci ho aj veľmi ľúbime,
hoci ho aj veľmi ľúbime,
08:09
you don't really have
enough of a sample size
enough of a sample size
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2217
nie je dostatočne veľká,
08:11
to figure out what happens on average,
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1946
aby bola štatisticky relevantná,
08:13
but at two years old,
she hasn't had an ear infection yet,
she hasn't had an ear infection yet,
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ale dnes má malá dva roky
a ešte nemala zápal ucha,
a ešte nemala zápal ucha,
08:16
so we're keeping our fingers
crossed on that one.
crossed on that one.
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takže tomu držíme palce.
08:18
And what's more, we're starting
to do clinical trials with more children
to do clinical trials with more children
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Navyše začíname s klinickým výskumom
s viacerými deťmi,
s viacerými deťmi,
08:22
to figure out whether
this has a protective effect generally.
this has a protective effect generally.
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aby sme zistili všeobecne,
či to má ochranný efekt.
či to má ochranný efekt.
08:27
So how we're born has a tremendous effect
on what microbes we have initially,
on what microbes we have initially,
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Takže pôrod má obrovský vplyv
na naše prvotné mikróby,
na naše prvotné mikróby,
08:32
but where do we go after that?
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ale čo potom?
08:34
What I'm showing you
again here is this map
again here is this map
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Znovu vidíme mapu
08:36
of the Human Microbiome Project Data,
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1998
Projektu ľudského mikrobiómu,
08:38
so each point represents
a sample from one body site
a sample from one body site
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2763
kde každý bod predstavuje
vzorku z jedného miesta tela
vzorku z jedného miesta tela
08:41
from one of 250 healthy adults.
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2540
jedného z 250 zdravých dospelých.
08:43
And you've seen children
develop physically.
develop physically.
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Vidíme, ako sa deti vyvíjajú fyzicky,
08:45
You've seen them develop mentally.
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2056
vidíme, ako sa vyvíjajú mentálne.
08:47
Now, for the first time,
you're going to see
you're going to see
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2075
A teraz po prvýkrát vidíme,
08:50
one of my colleague's children
develop microbially.
develop microbially.
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3358
ako sa dieťa môjho kolegu
vyvíja mikrobiálne.
vyvíja mikrobiálne.
08:53
So what we are going to look at
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1565
Takže sa pozrieme
08:54
is we're going to look
at this one baby's stool,
at this one baby's stool,
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2687
na stolicu toho bábätka,
08:57
the fecal community,
which represents the gut,
which represents the gut,
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2449
teda fekálnu komunitu,
ktorá reprezentuje črevá,
ktorá reprezentuje črevá,
09:00
sampled every week
for almost two and a half years.
for almost two and a half years.
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3169
odoberanú týždenne
po dva a pol roka.
po dva a pol roka.
09:03
And so we're starting on day one.
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1663
A začíname prvým dňom.
09:04
What's going to happen is that the infant
is going to start off as this yellow dot,
is going to start off as this yellow dot,
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3918
Naše dieťa začína ako tento žltý bod,
09:08
and you can see that he's starting off
basically in the vaginal community,
basically in the vaginal community,
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3480
vidíte, že začína v podstate
vo vaginálnej komunite,
vo vaginálnej komunite,
09:12
as we would expect from his delivery mode.
198
540329
2026
čo by sme aj očakávali
podľa jeho pôrodu.
podľa jeho pôrodu.
09:14
And what's going to happen
over these two and a half years
over these two and a half years
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2714
Počas tých dva a pol rokov
09:17
is that he's going to travel
all the way down
all the way down
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2142
pocestuje až nadol,
09:19
to resemble the adult fecal community from
healthy volunteers down at the bottom.
healthy volunteers down at the bottom.
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3814
až kým sa nepodobá na fekálnu komunitu
zdravých dospelých, tu dole.
zdravých dospelých, tu dole.
09:23
So I'm just going to start this going
and we'll see how that happens.
and we'll see how that happens.
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Spustím video a uvidíme,
ako sa to deje.
ako sa to deje.
09:26
What you can see, and remember
each step in this is just one week,
each step in this is just one week,
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4036
Každý krok predstavuje
len jeden týždeň.
len jeden týždeň.
09:30
what you can see is that week to week,
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Vidíme, že týždenné zmeny
09:32
the change in the microbial community
of the feces of this one child,
of the feces of this one child,
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4683
mikrobiálnej komunity
v stolici tohto dieťaťa
v stolici tohto dieťaťa
09:37
the differences week to week
are much greater
are much greater
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2551
sú oveľa väčšie
09:40
than the differences between
individual healthy adults
individual healthy adults
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2531
než rozdiely medzi
jednotlivými dospelými
jednotlivými dospelými
09:42
in the Human Microbiome Project cohort,
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570580
1950
v kohorte Projektu ľudského mikrobiómu,
09:44
which are those brown dots
down at the bottom.
down at the bottom.
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2476
to sú tie hnedé body dole.
09:47
And you can see he's starting
to approach the adult fecal community.
to approach the adult fecal community.
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3197
A vidíte, že sa začína približovať
k fekálnym komunitám dospelých.
k fekálnym komunitám dospelých.
09:50
This is up to about two years.
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Toto sa deje do dvoch rokov.
09:51
But something amazing
is about to happen here.
is about to happen here.
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2170
Ale tam sa stane čosi zaujímavé.
09:53
So he's getting antibiotics
for an ear infection.
for an ear infection.
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3088
Dostane antibiotiká na ušný zápal.
09:56
What you can see is
this huge change in the community,
this huge change in the community,
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2554
Vidíte tú obrovskú zmenu,
09:59
followed by a relatively rapid recovery.
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2058
nasledovanú pomerne rýchlym zotavením.
10:01
I'll just rewind that for you.
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2182
Pustím vám to ešte raz.
10:05
And what we can see is that
just over these few weeks,
just over these few weeks,
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Vidíme, že v období len pár týždňov
10:08
we have a much more radical change,
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1933
tu máme radikálnu zmenu,
10:10
a setback of many months
of normal development,
of normal development,
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2530
návrat o celé mesiace normálneho vývinu,
10:13
followed by a relatively rapid recovery,
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2252
nasledovaný dosť rýchlym zotavením
10:15
and by the time he reaches day 838,
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4133
a keď príde 838. deň,
10:19
which is the end of this video,
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1719
ktorým video končí,
10:21
you can see that he has essentially
reached the healthy adult stool community,
reached the healthy adult stool community,
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3697
dosiahol prakticky komunitu
stolice zdravých dospelých,
stolice zdravých dospelých,
10:25
despite that antibiotic intervention.
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2448
aj napriek antibiotickému zásahu.
10:27
So this is really interesting
because it raises fundamental questions
because it raises fundamental questions
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3328
Fakt zaujímavé,
lebo to vzbudzuje zásadné otázky
lebo to vzbudzuje zásadné otázky
10:30
about what happens when we intervene
at different ages in a child's life.
at different ages in a child's life.
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4099
o tom, čo sa deje pri zásahoch
v rôznych obdobiach detského veku.
v rôznych obdobiach detského veku.
10:35
So does what we do early on, where
the microbiome is changing so rapidly,
the microbiome is changing so rapidly,
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3611
Záleží vôbec na raných zásahoch,
keďže sa mikrobióm
keďže sa mikrobióm
10:38
actually matter,
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1300
mení tak rýchlo,
10:39
or is it like throwing a stone
into a stormy sea,
into a stormy sea,
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2483
alebo je to ako hod kameňom
do rozbúreného mora,
do rozbúreného mora,
10:42
where the ripples will just be lost?
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1742
kde sa kruhy rýchlo stratia?
10:45
Well, fascinatingly, it turns out
that if you give children antibiotics
that if you give children antibiotics
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4291
Napodiv sa ukázalo,
že keď dáte antibiotiká deťom
že keď dáte antibiotiká deťom
10:49
in the first six months of life,
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1650
do 6 mesiacov veku,
10:50
they're more likely
to become obese later on
to become obese later on
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2785
budú mať neskôr väčší sklon k obezite
10:53
than if they don't get antibiotics then
or only get them later,
or only get them later,
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3127
v porovnaní s tými, ktoré antibiotiká
brali neskôr alebo vôbec.
brali neskôr alebo vôbec.
10:56
and so what we do early on
may have profound impacts
may have profound impacts
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2946
Rané zásahy teda môžu mať výrazný vplyv
10:59
on the gut microbial community
and on later health
and on later health
236
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3497
na črevnú mikroflóru
a na budúce zdravie,
a na budúce zdravie,
11:03
that we're only beginning to understand.
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2326
ktorý len začíname odhaľovať.
11:05
So this is fascinating, because one day,
in addition to the effects
in addition to the effects
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4156
Je to fascinujúce,
lebo nehovoriac o vplyve
lebo nehovoriac o vplyve
11:09
that antibiotics have
on antibiotic-resistant bacteria,
on antibiotic-resistant bacteria,
239
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2646
antibiotík na AB-rezistenciu baktérií,
11:12
which are very important,
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1696
čo je tiež veľmi dôležité,
11:14
they may also be degrading
our gut microbial ecosystems,
our gut microbial ecosystems,
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2903
môžu antibiotiká narúšať
náš črevný mikrobiálny ekosystém
náš črevný mikrobiálny ekosystém
11:17
and so one day we may come
to regard antibiotics with the same horror
to regard antibiotics with the same horror
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3272
a jedného dňa sa možno na ne
budeme pozerať s rovnakou hrôzou,
budeme pozerať s rovnakou hrôzou,
11:20
that we currently reserve
for those metal tools
for those metal tools
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2463
akú dnes pociťujeme
k tým kovovým nástrojom,
k tým kovovým nástrojom,
11:22
that the Egyptians used to use
to mush up the brains
to mush up the brains
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670802
2459
ktoré Egypťania používali
na drvenie mozgu,
na drvenie mozgu,
11:25
before they drained them out
for embalming.
for embalming.
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2064
aby ho mohli pred balzamovaním dostať von.
11:27
So I mentioned that microbes
have all these important functions,
have all these important functions,
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3021
Spomínal som, že mikróby
majú množstvo úloh
majú množstvo úloh
11:30
and they've also now,
just over the past few years,
just over the past few years,
247
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2649
a v posledných pár rokoch
11:32
been connected to a whole range
of different diseases,
of different diseases,
248
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2833
sú spájané s celým spektrom chorôb,
11:35
including inflammatory bowel disease,
249
683828
2085
vrátane črevných zápalov,
srdcových chorôb,
rakoviny hrubého čreva
rakoviny hrubého čreva
11:37
heart disease, colon cancer,
250
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1724
11:39
and even obesity.
251
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1830
a dokonca s obezitou.
11:41
Obesity has a really
large effect, as it turns out,
large effect, as it turns out,
252
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2646
Obezita má, zdá sa,
obrovský vplyv,
obrovský vplyv,
11:44
and today, we can tell
whether you're lean or obese
whether you're lean or obese
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2393
dnes vieme povedať,
či ste štíhly, alebo obézny,
či ste štíhly, alebo obézny,
11:46
with 90 percent accuracy
254
694506
1879
s 90 % presnosťou,
11:48
by looking at the microbes in your gut.
255
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2112
len na základe vašich črevných mikróbov.
11:50
Now, although that might sound impressive,
256
698497
2289
Môže to znieť pôsobivo,
11:52
in some ways it's a little bit problematic
as a medical test,
as a medical test,
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3331
ale ako lekársky test
je to trochu problematické,
je to trochu problematické,
11:56
because you can probably tell
which of these people is obese
which of these people is obese
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704117
2997
lebo asi by ste vedeli povedať,
ktorá z dám trpí obezitou,
ktorá z dám trpí obezitou,
11:59
without knowing anything
about their gut microbes,
about their gut microbes,
259
707114
2752
aj bez znalosti
ich črevných mikróbov.
ich črevných mikróbov.
12:01
but it turns out that even
if we sequence their complete genomes
if we sequence their complete genomes
260
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3043
Ale ak by sme poznali ich
kompletnú ľudskú DNA,
kompletnú ľudskú DNA,
12:04
and had all their human DNA,
261
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1657
nasekvencovali všetky gény,
12:06
we could only predict which one
was obese with about 60 percent accuracy.
was obese with about 60 percent accuracy.
262
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4366
určili by sme, ktorá je obézna,
len s 60 % presnosťou.
len s 60 % presnosťou.
12:10
So that's amazing, right?
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1374
To je úžasné, nie?
12:12
What it means that the three pounds
of microbes that you carry around with you
of microbes that you carry around with you
264
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Znamená to, že 1,4 kg mikróbov,
ktoré so sebou nosíte,
ktoré so sebou nosíte,
12:16
may be more important
for some health conditions
for some health conditions
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môže byť zásadnejších
pre niektoré ochorenia
pre niektoré ochorenia
12:18
than every single gene in your genome.
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než všetky gény vášho genómu.
12:23
And then in mice, we can do a lot more.
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Pri myšiach toho vieme urobiť oveľa viac.
12:25
So in mice, microbes have been linked
to all kinds of additional conditions,
to all kinds of additional conditions,
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Tam sú mikróby spájané
s mnohými ďalšími diagnózami
s mnohými ďalšími diagnózami
12:29
including things like multiple sclerosis,
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ako je skleróza multiplex,
12:32
depression, autism, and again, obesity.
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depresia, autizmus a znova obezita.
12:35
But how can we tell whether
these microbial differences
these microbial differences
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Ale ako vieme,
či sú tieto mikrobiálne odchýlky
či sú tieto mikrobiálne odchýlky
12:38
that correlate with disease
are cause or effect?
are cause or effect?
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príčinou alebo dôsledkom daných chorôb?
12:41
Well, one thing we can do
is we can raise some mice
is we can raise some mice
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Jedna z vecí, ktoré môžeme urobiť,
je chovať myši
je chovať myši
12:44
without any microbes of their own
in a germ-free bubble.
in a germ-free bubble.
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bez vlastných mikróbov,
v aseptickej bubline.
v aseptickej bubline.
12:46
Then we can add in some microbes
that we think are important,
that we think are important,
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Potom pridáme mikróby,
ktoré nás zaujímajú,
ktoré nás zaujímajú,
12:49
and see what happens.
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a sledujeme, čo sa bude diať.
12:51
When we take the microbes
from an obese mouse
from an obese mouse
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Keď vezmeme mikróby od obéznej myši
12:54
and transplant them
into a genetically normal mouse
into a genetically normal mouse
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a transplantujeme ich
do geneticky normálnej myši,
do geneticky normálnej myši,
12:56
that's been raised in a bubble
with no microbes of its own,
with no microbes of its own,
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ktorá predtým nemala vlastné mikróby,
12:59
it becomes fatter than if it got them
from a regular mouse.
from a regular mouse.
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bude tučnejšia, než keby
dostala mikróby bežnej myši.
dostala mikróby bežnej myši.
13:04
Why this happens
is absolutely amazing, though.
is absolutely amazing, though.
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Je fakt zaujímavé, prečo je to tak.
13:06
Sometimes what's going on
is that the microbes
is that the microbes
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Niekedy ide o to, že mikróby
13:08
are helping them digest food
more efficiently from the same diet,
more efficiently from the same diet,
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pomáhajú tráviť jedlo efektívnejšie,
13:11
so they're taking more energy
from their food,
from their food,
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čiže myš získa
z rovnakej stravy viac energie,
z rovnakej stravy viac energie,
13:13
but other times, the microbes
are actually affecting their behavior.
are actually affecting their behavior.
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ale v iných prípadoch ide o to,
že mikróby ovplyvňujú správanie.
že mikróby ovplyvňujú správanie.
13:17
What they're doing is they're eating
more than the normal mouse,
more than the normal mouse,
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Taká myš potom žerie
viac ako normálna myš,
viac ako normálna myš,
13:20
so they only get fat if we let them
eat as much as they want.
eat as much as they want.
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takže tlstne, len ak ju necháme
žrať, koľko chce.
žrať, koľko chce.
13:24
So this is really remarkable, right?
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Pozoruhodné, však?
13:27
The implication is that microbes
can affect mammalian behavior.
can affect mammalian behavior.
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Ukazuje to, že mikróby sú schopné
ovplyvniť správanie cicavcov.
ovplyvniť správanie cicavcov.
13:33
So you might be wondering whether we can
also do this sort of thing across species,
also do this sort of thing across species,
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Možno vás zaujíma, či sa takéto
veci dajú robiť aj medzidruhovo
veci dajú robiť aj medzidruhovo
13:37
and it turns out that if you take microbes
from an obese person
from an obese person
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a naozaj, keď vezmete
mikróby obézneho človeka
mikróby obézneho človeka
13:40
and transplant them into mice
you've raised germ-free,
you've raised germ-free,
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a transplantujete ich do myši,
ktorá nemala žiadne vlastné,
ktorá nemala žiadne vlastné,
13:43
those mice will also become fatter
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2090
taká myš bude tlstnúť viac,
13:45
than if they received the microbes
from a lean person,
from a lean person,
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než keby dostala
mikróby štíhleho človeka.
mikróby štíhleho človeka.
13:48
but we can design a microbial community
that we inoculate them with
that we inoculate them with
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Ale vieme pripraviť mikrobiálnu komunitu,
ktorou myš naočkujeme,
ktorou myš naočkujeme,
13:52
that prevents them
from gaining this weight.
from gaining this weight.
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a tá priberaniu zabráni.
13:55
We can also do this for malnutrition.
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Vieme pracovať aj s podvýživou.
13:57
So in a project funded
by the Gates Foundation,
by the Gates Foundation,
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V jednom projekte financovanom
Gatesovou nadáciou
Gatesovou nadáciou
14:00
what we're looking at
is children in Malawi
is children in Malawi
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skúmame deti z Malawi,
14:02
who have kwashiorkor,
a profound form of malnutrition,
a profound form of malnutrition,
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830871
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trpiace ťažkou formou
podvýživy zvanou kwashiokor
podvýživy zvanou kwashiokor
14:05
and mice that get the kwashiorkor
community transplanted into them
community transplanted into them
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a myši, ktorým transplantujeme
kwashiokorovú komunitu,
kwashiokorovú komunitu,
14:08
lose 30 percent of their body mass
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stratia 30 % telesnej hmotnosti
14:11
in just three weeks,
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1179
už počas 3 týždňov,
14:12
but we can restore their health by using
the same peanut butter-based supplement
the same peanut butter-based supplement
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ale vieme ich uzdraviť
pomocou výťažku z arašidového masla,
pomocou výťažku z arašidového masla,
14:16
that is used for
the children in the clinic,
the children in the clinic,
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ktorý dostávajú aj deti v nemocnici.
14:18
and the mice that receive the community
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846132
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Myšiam, ktoré dostali mikróby
14:19
from the healthy identical twins
of the kwashiorkor children do fine.
of the kwashiorkor children do fine.
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3247
od zdravých dvojičiek podvyživených detí,
sa darí dobre.
sa darí dobre.
14:24
This is truly amazing because it suggests
that we can pilot therapies
that we can pilot therapies
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Skvelé, toto naznačuje,
že môžeme smerovať liečbu tým,
že môžeme smerovať liečbu tým,
14:27
by trying them out
in a whole bunch of different mice
in a whole bunch of different mice
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855976
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že ju vyskúšame na mnohých myšiach,
ktoré všetky majú
ktoré všetky majú
14:30
with individual people's gut communities
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858483
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črevnú mikroflóru daného pacienta,
14:32
and perhaps tailor those therapies
all the way down to the individual level.
all the way down to the individual level.
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a snáď aj ušiť liečbu
každému pacientovi na mieru.
každému pacientovi na mieru.
14:38
So I think it's really important
that everyone has a chance
that everyone has a chance
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Podľa mňa je dôležité, aby sa každý mohol
14:41
to participate in this discovery.
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podieľať na tomto objave.
14:43
So, a couple of years ago,
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Preto sme pred pár rokmi
14:45
we started this project
called American Gut,
called American Gut,
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873131
2071
spustili projekt menom Americké črevá,
14:47
which allows you to claim a place
for yourself on this microbial map.
for yourself on this microbial map.
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ktorý vám umožní zaujať vaše miesto
na tejto mikrobiálnej mape.
na tejto mikrobiálnej mape.
14:51
This is now the largest crowd-funded
science project that we know of --
science project that we know of --
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879406
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Dnes je to najväčší crowd-fundovaný
vedecký projekt, o ktorom viem –
vedecký projekt, o ktorom viem –
14:54
over 8,000 people
have signed up at this point.
have signed up at this point.
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doteraz sa prihlásilo
viac než 8 000 ľudí.
viac než 8 000 ľudí.
14:57
What happens is,
they send in their samples,
they send in their samples,
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885651
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Funguje to tak, že nám pošlú vzorky,
15:00
we sequence the DNA of their microbes
and then release the results back to them.
and then release the results back to them.
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888229
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my nasekvencujeme DNA ich mikróbov
a oznámime im výsledky.
a oznámime im výsledky.
15:04
We also release them, de-identified,
to scientists, to educators,
to scientists, to educators,
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892014
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Výsledky, bez identifikácie človeka,
zverejníme aj pre vedcov, učiteľov,
zverejníme aj pre vedcov, učiteľov,
15:07
to interested members
of the general public, and so forth,
of the general public, and so forth,
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3019
verejnosť a tak ďalej,
15:10
so anyone can have access to the data.
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3155
každý môže mať k týmto údajom prístup.
15:13
On the other hand,
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901879
1171
Na druhej strane,
15:15
when we do tours of our lab
at the BioFrontiers Institute,
at the BioFrontiers Institute,
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903050
3282
keď predvádzame náš labák
v BioFrontier Institute
v BioFrontier Institute
15:18
and we explain that we use robots
and lasers to look at poop,
and lasers to look at poop,
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906332
3560
a vysvetľujeme, že pomocou
robotov a laserov skúmame fekálie,
robotov a laserov skúmame fekálie,
15:21
it turns out that not
everyone wants to know.
everyone wants to know.
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909892
3112
vysvitne, že nie každý
chce o sebe toto vedieť.
chce o sebe toto vedieť.
(smiech)
15:25
(Laughter)
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913004
1282
15:26
But I'm guessing that many of you do,
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914286
1921
Ale myslím, že mnohí z vás áno,
15:28
and so I brought some kits here
if you're interested
if you're interested
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2659
tak som priniesol niekoľko súprav,
ak máte záujem
ak máte záujem
15:30
in trying this out for yourself.
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vyskúšať si to.
15:35
So why might we want to do this?
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923046
1947
Prečo to stojí za to?
15:36
Well, it turns out that microbes
are not just important
are not just important
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924993
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Ukazuje sa, že pomocou mikróbov
15:39
for finding out where we are
in terms of our health,
in terms of our health,
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927563
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vieme nielen zistiť,
ako sme na tom so zdravím,
ako sme na tom so zdravím,
15:42
but they can actually cure disease.
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930464
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ale aj choroby liečiť.
15:44
This is one of the newest things
we've been able to visualize
we've been able to visualize
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932872
2925
Toto je jedna z noviniek,
ktorú sa nám podarilo vizualizovať
ktorú sa nám podarilo vizualizovať
15:47
with colleagues
at the University of Minnesota.
at the University of Minnesota.
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935797
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s kolegami z Minnesotskej univerzity.
15:50
So here's that map
of the human microbiome again.
of the human microbiome again.
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2617
Tu je znova mapa ľudského mikrobiómu.
15:53
What we're looking at now --
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Pridám tam
15:54
I'm going to add in the community
of some people with C. diff.
of some people with C. diff.
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3370
mikrobiálne komunity
ľudí trpiacich na C. diff.
ľudí trpiacich na C. diff.
15:57
So, this is a terrible form of diarrhea
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2279
To je príšerná forma hnačky,
16:00
where you have to go
up to 20 times a day,
up to 20 times a day,
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2345
musíte bežať aj 20-krát za deň,
16:02
and these people have failed
antibiotic therapy for two years
antibiotic therapy for two years
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950604
3111
a vyberali sme len spomedzi pacientov,
16:05
before they're eligible for this trial.
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953715
2299
ktorým dva roky nezaberali antibiotiká.
16:08
So what would happen if we transplanted
some of the stool from a healthy donor,
some of the stool from a healthy donor,
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956014
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Čo sa stane, ak transplantujeme
trochu stolice od zdravého darcu,
trochu stolice od zdravého darcu,
16:12
that star down at the bottom,
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to je ten tu dole,
16:14
into these patients.
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do čriev týchto pacientov.
16:15
Would the good microbes
do battle with the bad microbes
do battle with the bad microbes
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2609
Budú dobré mikróby bojovať so zlými
16:18
and help to restore their health?
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2079
a pomôžu prinavrátiť zdravie?
16:20
So let's watch exactly what happens there.
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2316
Pozrime sa presne, čo sa deje.
16:22
Four of those patients
are about to get a transplant
are about to get a transplant
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970704
2516
Štyria pacienti dostanú transplantát
16:25
from that healthy donor at the bottom,
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1904
od zdravého darcu tu dole
16:27
and what you can see is that immediately,
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975124
1957
a vidíte, že črevná komunita
16:29
you have this radical change
in the gut community.
in the gut community.
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2405
sa okamžite radikálne zmení.
16:31
So one day after you do that transplant,
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Deň po transplantácii
16:33
all those symptoms clear up,
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všetky symptómy vymiznú,
16:35
the diarrhea vanishes,
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983204
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hnačka prestane
16:36
and they're essentially healthy again,
coming to resemble the donor's community,
coming to resemble the donor's community,
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984759
3772
a pacienti sú znova zdraví,
s črevnou mikroflórou podobnou darcovi,
s črevnou mikroflórou podobnou darcovi,
16:40
and they stay there.
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ktorá je stabilná.
16:42
(Applause)
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4797
(potlesk)
16:49
So we're just at the beginning
of this discovery.
of this discovery.
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997290
2375
V týchto objavoch sme len na začiatku.
16:51
We're just finding out that microbes
have implications
have implications
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2540
Zisťujeme, že mikróby majú vplyv
16:54
for all these different kinds of diseases,
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na všemožné choroby,
16:56
ranging from inflammatory
bowel disease to obesity,
bowel disease to obesity,
364
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od črevných zápalov po obezitu
16:58
and perhaps even autism and depression.
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3083
a možno aj na autizmus a depresiu.
17:01
What we need to do, though,
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Teraz potrebujeme
17:03
is we need to develop
a kind of microbial GPS,
a kind of microbial GPS,
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2258
vyvinúť niečo ako mikrobiálne GPS,
17:05
where we don't just know
where we are currently
where we are currently
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s ktorým nielen zistíme, kde práve sme,
17:07
but also where we want to go
and what we need to do
and what we need to do
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ale tiež, kam chceme ísť
17:11
in order to get there,
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1486
a čo pre to treba urobiť
17:12
and we need to be able
to make this simple enough
to make this simple enough
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2345
a musíme to urobiť dosť jednoduché,
17:15
that even a child can use it.
(Laughter)
(Laughter)
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aby to zvládlo aj dieťa.
(smiech)
(smiech)
17:17
Thank you.
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Ďakujem.
17:20
(Applause)
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(potlesk)
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Rob Knight - Microbial ecologistRob Knight explores the unseen microbial world that exists literally right under our noses -- and everywhere else on (and in) our bodies.
Why you should listen
Using scatological research methods that might repel the squeamish, microbial researcher Rob Knight uncovers the secret ecosystem (or "microbiome") of microbes that inhabit our bodies -- and the bodies of every creature on earth. In the process, he’s discovered a complex internal ecology that affects everything from weight loss to our susceptibility to disease. As he said to Nature in 2012, "What motivates me, from a pragmatic standpoint, is how understanding the microbial world might help us improve human and environmental health.”
Knight’s recent projects include the American Gut, an attempt to map the unique microbiome of the United States using open-access data mining tools and citizen-scientists to discover how lifestyle and diet affect our internal flora and fauna, and our overall health.
Knight is the author of the TED Book, Follow Your Gut: The Enormous Impact of Tiny Microbes.
Rob Knight | Speaker | TED.com