ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Carolyn Bertozzi - Chemical biologist
Professor Carolyn Bertozzi is a chemical biologist who invents technologies and medicines based on disease-causing sugar molecules.

Why you should listen

Professor Carolyn Bertozzi's research interests span the disciplines of chemistry and biology with an emphasis on studies of cell surface sugars important to human health and disease. She was originally trained in organic chemistry and immunology, and today her research group works at the interface of these two disciplines They recently made discoveries that link particular sugars that coat the surfaces of cancer cells with the ability of those disease-causing cells to avoid elimination by the human immune system.  Now her research group is developing medicines that attack cancer cell-surface sugars so as to render the immune system more potent at eliminating disease. Bertozzi also studies other human health problems including tuberculosis infections and rare genetic disorders, using tools from chemistry to power biomedical research.

More profile about the speaker
Carolyn Bertozzi | Speaker | TED.com
TEDxStanford

Carolyn Bertozzi: What the sugar coating on your cells is trying to tell you

凱洛琳柏托齊: 包裹在你細胞外面的糖試圖告訴你什麼資訊?

Filmed:
1,527,740 views

你的細胞外面包裹著一層糖,那層糖存有資訊,是一種秘密語言,試著告訴我們:血型和癌症。化學生物學家凱洛琳柏托齊研究癌症細胞上面的糖如何和免疫系統互動(有時還欺騙免疫細胞)。來進一步了解你的身體如何偵測癌症,以及最新的抗癌症藥物能如何協助你的免疫系統打敗這疾病。
- Chemical biologist
Professor Carolyn Bertozzi is a chemical biologist who invents technologies and medicines based on disease-causing sugar molecules. Full bio

Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.

00:12
This is a talk about sugar and cancer癌症.
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這是一場關於糖和癌症的演說。
00:15
I became成為 interested有興趣 in sugar
when I was in college學院.
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我在大學時對糖產生了興趣。
00:19
Not this kind of sugar.
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不是這種糖。
00:21
It was the sugar that our biology生物學
professors教授 taught us about
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是生物學教授上課時教的那種糖,
00:26
in the context上下文 of the coating塗層
of your cells細胞.
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包裹著你的細胞的那種糖。
00:30
Maybe you didn't know that your cells細胞
are coated with sugar.
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也許你不知道你的細胞
被糖所包裹著。
00:34
And I didn't know that, either,
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我本來也不知道,
00:36
until直到 I took these courses培訓班 in college學院,
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到大學時修了這些課程才學到。
00:38
but back then --
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但是當時──
00:40
and this was in, let's just
call it the 1980s --
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那時是……我們姑且
就說是 1980 年代吧──
00:44
people didn't know much about why
our cells細胞 are coated with sugar.
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人們並不知道為什麼
我們的細胞會被糖所包裹。
00:48
And when I dug through通過 my notes筆記,
what I noticed注意到 I had written書面 down
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而當我翻閱我的筆記時,
我發現我記下的是:
00:52
is that the sugar coating塗層 on our cells細胞
is like the sugar coating塗層
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細胞上所包裹的糖,
就像是花生 M&M 豆
00:57
on a peanut花生 M&amp功放;M.
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外面的糖衣。
00:59
And people thought
the sugar coating塗層 on our cells細胞
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人們認為,包裹著我們細胞的糖衣
01:02
was like a protective保護的 coating塗層
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就像是一層保護塗層,
01:04
that somehow不知何故 made製作 our cells細胞
stronger or tougher強硬.
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以某種方式讓我們的細胞
更強壯或更堅韌。
01:08
But we now know, many許多 decades幾十年 later後來,
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但幾十年之後的現在,
01:11
that it's much more complicated複雜 than that,
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我們知道答案並沒有這麼簡單,
01:13
and that the sugars on our cells細胞
are actually其實 very complex複雜.
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包裹我們細胞的糖其實非常複雜。
01:19
And if you could shrink收縮 yourself你自己 down
to a little miniature微型 airplane飛機
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如果你把自己縮小成一架迷你飛機,
01:24
and fly right along沿
the surface表面 of your cells細胞,
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然後沿著你的細胞表面飛行,
01:28
it might威力 look something like this --
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你可能會看到這樣的景象──
01:30
with geographical地理 features特徵.
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有著地理特徵。
01:33
And now, the complex複雜 sugars
are these trees樹木 and bushes灌木叢 --
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複雜的糖就像這些樹和灌木──
01:37
weeping willows楊柳 that are
swaying搖曳 in the wind
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隨風搖動、隨波移動
01:39
and moving移動 with the waves波浪.
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的垂柳,
01:41
And when I started開始 thinking思維 about
all these complex複雜 sugars
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當我開始思考這些複雜的糖,
01:45
that are like this foliage葉子 on our cells細胞,
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它們就像是我們細胞上的葉子,
01:48
it became成為 one of the most interesting有趣
problems問題 that I encountered遇到
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對於我這個生物學家兼化學家來說,
01:51
as a biologist生物學家 and also as a chemist化學家.
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它變成了我遇過最有趣的問題之一。
01:55
And so now we tend趨向
to think about the sugars
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現在我們傾向將佈滿在
01:58
that are populating填充
the surface表面 of our cells細胞
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細胞的表面上的糖視為
02:01
as a language語言.
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是一種語言。
02:04
They have a lot of information信息
stored存儲 in their complex複雜 structures結構.
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有大量的訊息儲存在
它們複雜的結構中。
02:09
But what are they trying to tell us?
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但它們想要告訴我們什麼呢?
02:12
I can tell you that we do know
some information信息
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我可以告訴各位,我們確實知道一些
02:15
that comes from these sugars,
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來自這些糖的訊息,
02:17
and it's turned轉身 out already已經
to be incredibly令人難以置信 important重要
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且這些訊息對於醫學界的重要性
02:20
in the world世界 of medicine醫學.
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也已經被證明。
02:22
For example, one thing
your sugars are telling告訴 us
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例如,你的糖能告訴
我們的其中一項資訊
02:26
is your blood血液 type類型.
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是你的血型。
02:29
So your blood血液 cells細胞, your red blood血液
cells細胞, are coated with sugars,
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你的血細胞,你的紅血球細胞,
是被糖所包裹住的,
02:33
and the chemical化學 structures結構 of those
sugars determine確定 your blood血液 type類型.
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而這些糖的化學結構
決定了你的血型。
02:37
So for example, I know
that I am blood血液 type類型 O.
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比如,我知道我的血型是 O 型。
02:41
How many許多 people are also blood血液 type類型 O?
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有多少人也是 O 型?
02:45
Put your hands up.
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請舉手。
02:46
It's a pretty漂亮 common共同 one,
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這種血型很常見,
02:47
so when so few少數 hands go up,
either you're not paying付款 attention注意
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舉手的人這麼少,
若不是你們沒認真聽,
就是你們不知道自己的血型,
兩種情況都不太好。
02:50
or you don't know your blood血液 type類型,
and both of those are bad.
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02:53
(Laughter笑聲)
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(笑聲)
02:54
But for those of you who share分享
the blood血液 type類型 O with me,
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不過如果你和我一樣是 O 型,
02:57
what this means手段 is that we have
this chemical化學 structure結構體
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這意味著我們的血細胞表面的
02:59
on the surface表面 of our blood血液 cells細胞:
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化學結構是這樣的:
03:02
three simple簡單 sugars linked關聯 together一起
to make a more complex複雜 sugar.
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三個單醣連在一起,
形成一個更複雜的糖。
03:06
And that, by definition定義, is blood血液 type類型 O.
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這就是 O 型的定義。
03:09
Now, how many許多 people are blood血液 type類型 A?
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有多少人的血型是 A 型?
03:12
Right here.
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在這裡。
03:13
That means手段 you have
an enzyme in your cells細胞
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這意味著你的細胞裡有一種酶,
03:16
that adds增加 one more building建造 block,
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它會增加一塊積木,
03:19
that red sugar,
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也就是那紅色糖,
03:20
to build建立 a more complex複雜 structure結構體.
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來建立更複雜的結構。
03:23
And how many許多 people are blood血液 type類型 B?
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有多少人的血型是 B 型?
03:26
Quite相當 a few少數.
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還不少。
03:27
You have a slightly different不同 enzyme
than the A people,
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你們的酶和 A 型的人略有不同,
03:30
so you build建立 a slightly
different不同 structure結構體,
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所以建出來的結構也略有不同,
03:32
and those of you that are ABAB
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至於 AB 型的人,
03:34
have the enzyme from your mother母親,
the other enzyme from your father父親,
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則有分別來自母親和父親的酶,
03:37
and now you make both of these structures結構
in roughly大致 equal等於 proportions比例.
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你所建立的這兩種結構,
在比例上是大約各半。
03:41
And when this was figured想通 out,
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直到上個世紀,這個現象
03:43
which哪一個 is now back in the previous以前 century世紀,
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才被發現,
03:46
this enabled啟用 one of the most important重要
medical procedures程序 in the world世界,
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因為它,才會有世界上
最重要的醫療手術之一,
03:50
which哪一個, of course課程,
is the blood血液 transfusion.
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當然,也就是輸血。
03:52
And by knowing會心 what your blood血液 type類型 is,
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知道了自己的血型,
03:54
we can make sure,
if you ever need a transfusion,
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當你需要輸血時,我們就可以確保
03:57
that your donor捐贈者 has the same相同 blood血液 type類型,
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你的捐血者和你有同樣的血型,
03:59
so that your body身體
doesn't see foreign國外 sugars,
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這樣你的身體才不會發現
有外來的糖進入,
04:03
which哪一個 it wouldn't不會 like
and would certainly當然 reject拒絕.
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它不喜歡外來的糖,一定會排斥。
04:08
What else其他 are the sugars on the surface表面
of your cells細胞 trying to tell us?
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你細胞表面的糖,
還能告訴我們什麼資訊?
04:13
Well, those sugars might威力 be telling告訴 us
that you have cancer癌症.
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那些糖還可能還可以
告訴我們你得了癌症。
04:18
So a few少數 decades幾十年 ago,
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幾十年前,
04:20
correlations相關 began開始 to emerge出現
from the analysis分析 of tumor tissue組織.
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針對腫瘤組織所做的分析,
開始發現了相關性。
04:26
And the typical典型 scenario腳本 is a patient患者
would have a tumor detected檢測,
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最典型的情況是:
當一名患者被檢測出腫瘤,
04:30
and the tissue組織 would be removed去除
in a biopsy活檢 procedure程序
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會進行活組織切片來切除組織,
04:34
and then sent發送 down to a pathology病理 lab實驗室
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該組織接著會被送到病理實驗室,
04:37
where that tissue組織 would be analyzed分析
to look for chemical化學 changes變化
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在那裡進行分析,尋找化學變化,
04:41
that might威力 inform通知 the oncologist腫瘤科醫生
about the best最好 course課程 of treatment治療.
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這些變化或許能幫助
腫瘤學家斷定最適合的療程。
04:46
And what was discovered發現
from studies學習 like that
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這類研究的發現是,
04:49
is that the sugars have changed
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當細胞由健康轉成病態時,
04:52
when the cell細胞 transforms變換
from being存在 healthy健康 to being存在 sick生病.
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糖也會發生變化。
04:58
And those correlations相關 have come up
again and again and again.
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而這些相關性一而再、
再而三地出現。
05:04
But a big question in the field領域
has been: Why?
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但實做上的一個大問題是:為什麼?
05:08
Why do cancers癌症 have different不同 sugars?
What's the importance重要性 of that?
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為何癌症會有不同的糖?
其重要性何在?
05:13
Why does it happen發生, and what
can we do about it if it does turn out
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它為何發生?
若它真的和疾病的進程有關,
我們又能做什麼呢?
05:16
to be related有關 to the disease疾病 process處理?
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05:21
So, one of the changes變化 that we study研究
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我們所研究的各項變化之一,
05:25
is an increase增加 in the density密度
of a particular特定 sugar
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就是一種特定糖的密度增加,
05:30
that's called sialic唾液酸 acid.
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這種糖叫「唾液酸」。
05:33
And I think this is going to be
one of the most important重要 sugars
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我認為它將是我們這個時代
最重要的糖其中的一種,
05:37
of our times,
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05:38
so I would encourage鼓勵 everybody每個人
to get familiar with this word.
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所以我建議大家都熟悉一下這個詞。
05:43
Sialic唾液 acid is not
the kind of sugar that we eat.
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唾液酸不是我們吃的那種糖。
05:46
Those are different不同 sugars.
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那些是不同的糖。
05:48
This is a kind of sugar
that is actually其實 found發現
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實際上,在你體內的所有細胞上,
05:51
at certain某些 levels水平 on all
of the cells細胞 in your body身體.
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都可找到一定量的這種糖。
05:54
It's actually其實 quite相當 common共同 on your cells細胞.
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它在你的細胞上其實很常見。
05:58
But for some reason原因,
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但由於某種原因,
06:00
cancer癌症 cells細胞, at least最小 in a successful成功,
progressive進步 disease疾病,
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癌細胞……至少在疾病
成功進展的情況下,
06:05
tend趨向 to have more sialic唾液酸 acid
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癌細胞的唾液酸量通常會多於
06:09
than a normal正常, healthy健康 cell細胞 would have.
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正常健康細胞的唾液酸量。
06:11
And why?
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為什麼呢?
06:12
What does that mean?
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這意味著什麼?
06:15
Well, what we've我們已經 learned學到了
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我們所知道的是,
06:16
is that it has to do
with your immune免疫的 system系統.
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這和你的免疫系統有關。
06:20
So let me tell you a little bit
about the importance重要性 of your immune免疫的 system系統
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所以,讓我先告訴各位
免疫系統在癌症中的重要性。
06:24
in cancer癌症.
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我想,這陣子在新聞中
也有不少相關報導。
06:25
And this is something that's, I think,
in the news新聞 a lot these days.
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06:29
You know, people are starting開始
to become成為 familiar with the term術語
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人們開始越來越熟悉這個詞:
06:32
"cancer癌症 immune免疫的 therapy治療."
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「癌症免疫治療」。
06:34
And some of you might威力 even know people
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甚至在座可能就有人認識
06:36
who are benefiting受益 from these very new
ways方法 of treating治療 cancer癌症.
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這些新式癌症療法的受益者。
06:41
What we now know
is that your immune免疫的 cells細胞,
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我們現在知道,你的免疫細胞,
06:45
which哪一個 are the white白色 blood血液 cells細胞
coursing竊喜 through通過 your bloodstream血液,
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也就是在你血液中
流動的白血球細胞,
06:49
protect保護 you on a daily日常 basis基礎
from things gone走了 bad --
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每天保護著你,避免壞事發生──
06:53
including包含 cancer癌症.
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包括癌症。
06:55
And so in this picture圖片,
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在這張圖片中,
06:57
those little green綠色 balls
are your immune免疫的 cells細胞,
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這些綠色的球體就是你的免疫細胞,
07:00
and that big pink cell細胞 is a cancer癌症 cell細胞.
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而那個粉紅色大細胞則是個癌細胞。
07:04
And these immune免疫的 cells細胞 go around
and taste味道 all the cells細胞 in your body身體.
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這些免疫細胞四處巡邏,
品嚐你體內的所有細胞。
07:09
That's their job工作.
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那是它們的職責。
07:10
And most of the time, the cells細胞 taste味道 OK.
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大多數情況下,細胞嚐起來沒問題。
07:13
But once一旦 in a while,
a cell細胞 might威力 taste味道 bad.
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但偶爾,某個細胞
可能嚐起來不太對。
07:16
Hopefully希望, that's the cancer癌症 cell細胞,
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但願那就是癌細胞,
07:18
and when those immune免疫的 cells細胞
get the bad taste味道,
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當這些免疫細胞嚐到不對的味道,
07:20
they launch發射 an all-out全力以赴 strike罷工
and kill those cells細胞.
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它們會傾巢而出,殺死這些細胞。
07:24
So we know that.
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我們知道這些。
07:25
We also know that if you can
potentiate使可能 that tasting品嚐,
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我們也知道,如果你能
賦與那種品嚐行為力量,
07:30
if you can encourage鼓勵 those immune免疫的 cells細胞
to actually其實 take a big old bite
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如果你能鼓勵那些免疫細胞狠狠地咬
07:34
out of a cancer癌症 cell細胞,
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癌細胞一大口,
07:35
you get a better job工作 protecting保護
yourself你自己 from cancer癌症 every一切 day
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你每天就更能保護自己免於癌症,
07:38
and maybe even curing養護 a cancer癌症.
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甚至還可能治癒癌症。
07:41
And there are now a couple一對 of drugs毒品
out there in the market市場
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目前市面上有幾種用來
07:44
that are used to treat對待 cancer癌症 patients耐心
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治療癌症病人的藥,
07:46
that act法案 exactly究竟 by this process處理.
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正是利用這個過程來產生作用。
07:49
They activate啟用 the immune免疫的 system系統
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它們會活化免疫系統,
07:51
so that the immune免疫的 system系統
can be more vigorous蓬勃
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讓免疫系統更強而有力,
07:54
in protecting保護 us from cancer癌症.
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保護我們免於癌症。
07:55
In fact事實, one of those drugs毒品
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事實上,這些藥物的其中一種,
07:57
may可能 well have spared倖免
President主席 Jimmy吉米 Carter's卡特的 life.
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很可能救了總統吉米卡特的命。
08:01
Do you remember記得, President主席 Carter卡特
had malignant惡性 melanoma黑色素瘤
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記得嗎,卡特總統
得了惡性黑色素瘤,
08:06
that had metastasized轉移 to his brain,
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癌細胞轉移到他的腦部,
08:08
and that diagnosis診斷 is one
that is usually平時 accompanied伴隨著 by numbers數字
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那種診斷通常還會帶著一個數字,
08:12
like "months個月 to live生活."
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「剩幾個月可活」。
08:15
But he was treated治療 with one
of these new immune-stimulating免疫刺激 drugs毒品,
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但是他接受了一種
免疫系統刺激藥物的治療,
08:19
and now his melanoma黑色素瘤
appears出現 to be in remission緩解,
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現在他的黑色素瘤顯然已經緩解,
08:22
which哪一個 is remarkable卓越,
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這結果很了不起,
08:24
considering考慮 the situation情況
only a few少數 years年份 ago.
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畢竟他幾年前的狀況還是非常糟的。
08:28
In fact事實, it's so remarkable卓越
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事實上,這結果了不起到
08:29
that provocative挑釁 statements聲明 like this one:
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引發了這段陳述:
08:32
"Cancer癌症 is having a penicillin青黴素 moment時刻,"
people are saying,
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「癌症也有了盤尼西林的時刻」,
人們對於這些新的
免疫治療藥物如是說。
08:36
with these new immune免疫的 therapy治療 drugs毒品.
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08:38
I mean, that's an incredibly令人難以置信 bold膽大 thing
to say about a disease疾病
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用這樣的方式形容一種我們長年對抗
08:41
which哪一個 we've我們已經 been fighting戰鬥 for a long time
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且通常都打不贏的疾病,
08:44
and mostly大多 losing失去 the battle戰鬥 with.
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是相當大膽的。
08:46
So this is very exciting扣人心弦.
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所以這很讓人興奮。
08:48
Now what does this have to do with sugars?
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那麼,這與糖有什麼關係呢?
08:51
Well, I'll tell you what we've我們已經 learned學到了.
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讓我告訴各位我們目前所知道的。
08:54
When an immune免疫的 cell細胞 snuggles挨近
up against反對 a cancer癌症 cell細胞 to take a taste味道,
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當一個免疫細胞靠向一個
癌細胞,去品嚐它的味道時,
09:01
it's looking for signs跡象 of disease疾病,
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它是在尋找疾病的徵兆,
09:03
and if it finds認定 those signs跡象,
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如果它能找到這種徵兆,
09:05
the cell細胞 gets得到 activated活性 and it launches發布會
a missile導彈 strike罷工 and kills殺死 the cell細胞.
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這細胞就會被活化,
發動飛彈攻擊,殺死癌細胞。
09:11
But if that cancer癌症 cell細胞 has a dense稠密 forest森林
of that sugar, sialic唾液酸 acid,
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但若癌細胞上覆蓋了一層由那種糖,
也就是唾液酸,所組成的茂密樹林,
09:17
well, it starts啟動 to taste味道 pretty漂亮 good.
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那它嚐起來的味道就會是好的。
09:21
And there's a protein蛋白 on immune免疫的 cells細胞
that grabs爭奪 the sialic唾液酸 acid,
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在免疫細胞上有個蛋白質
會抓住唾液酸,
09:26
and if that protein蛋白
gets得到 held保持 at that synapse突觸
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如果那蛋白質被卡在免疫細胞
和癌症細胞之間的突觸上,
09:30
between之間 the immune免疫的 cell細胞
and the cancer癌症 cell細胞,
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09:33
it puts看跌期權 that immune免疫的 cell細胞 to sleep睡覺.
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就會讓免疫細胞進入睡眠。
09:35
The sialic唾液酸 acids are telling告訴
the immune免疫的 cell細胞,
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如果唾液酸告訴免疫細胞說:
09:39
"Hey, this cell's細胞 all right.
Nothing to see here, move移動 along沿.
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「嘿,這個細胞沒問題。
沒什麼好看的,走開。
09:42
Look somewhere某處 else其他."
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去看其他地方。」
09:44
So in other words,
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換言之,
09:45
as long as our cells細胞 are wearing穿著
a thick coat塗層 of sialic唾液酸 acid,
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只要我們的細胞覆蓋著
很厚一層的唾液酸,
09:51
they look fabulous極好, right?
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它們看起來就很好,對嗎?
09:54
It's amazing驚人.
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那很驚人。
09:56
And what if you could strip跳閘 off that coat塗層
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如果你能夠剝除包裹的外層,
09:59
and take that sugar away?
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把糖給去除掉呢?
10:02
Well, your immune免疫的 system系統
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那麼,你的免疫系統
10:05
might威力 be able能夠 to see that cancer癌症 cell細胞
for what it really is:
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就有可能看見癌症細胞的真面目:
10:09
something that needs需求 to be destroyed銷毀.
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該被摧毀的目標。
10:12
And so this is what we're doing in my lab實驗室.
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我們在我的實驗室中就在做這個。
10:15
We're developing發展 new medicines藥品
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我們正在開發新的藥,
10:18
that are basically基本上
cell-surface細胞表面 lawnmowers剪草機 --
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基本上可以說是
細胞表面用的除草機,
10:21
molecules分子 that go down
to the surface表面 of these cancer癌症 cells細胞
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分子會前往這些癌症細胞的表面,
10:25
and just cut off those sialic唾液酸 acids,
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把那些唾液酸通通除掉,
10:28
so that the immune免疫的 system系統
can reach達到 its full充分 potential潛在
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這麼一來,免疫系統就能發揮全力,
10:32
in eliminating消除 those cancer癌症
cells細胞 from our body身體.
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消滅掉我們身體中的癌症細胞。
10:36
So in closing關閉,
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最後結尾,
10:39
let me just remind提醒 you again:
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讓我再次提醒各位:
10:41
your cells細胞 are coated with sugars.
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你們的細胞都被糖所包裹著。
10:44
The sugars are telling告訴 cells細胞
around that cell細胞
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糖會告訴那細胞附近的其他細胞
10:49
whether是否 the cell細胞 is good or bad.
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那細胞是好的或是壞的。
10:52
And that's important重要,
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那很重要,
10:53
because our immune免疫的 system系統 needs需求
to leave離開 the good cells細胞 alone單獨.
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因為我們的免疫系統
得要放過好的細胞。
10:56
Otherwise除此以外, we'd星期三 have autoimmune自身免疫性 diseases疾病.
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不然我們就會有自體免疫疾病了。
11:00
But once一旦 in a while,
cancers癌症 get the ability能力
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但偶爾,癌症有能力可以
11:03
to express表現 these new sugars.
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展現出這些新的糖。
11:05
And now that we understand理解
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現在我們知道
11:06
how those sugars mesmerize催眠
the immune免疫的 system系統,
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那些糖是如何迷惑免疫系統的,
11:09
we can come up with new medicines藥品
to wake喚醒 up those immune免疫的 cells細胞,
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我們就能做出新的藥
來喚醒那些免疫細胞,
11:13
tell them, "Ignore忽視
the sugars, eat the cell細胞
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告訴它們:「別理會那些糖,
去吃那細胞,
11:17
and have a delicious美味的 snack小吃, on cancer癌症."
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在癌症上面吃頓美味的點心。」
11:20
Thank you.
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謝謝大家。
11:22
(Applause掌聲)
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(掌聲)
Translated by Lilian Chiu
Reviewed by Helen Chang

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ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Carolyn Bertozzi - Chemical biologist
Professor Carolyn Bertozzi is a chemical biologist who invents technologies and medicines based on disease-causing sugar molecules.

Why you should listen

Professor Carolyn Bertozzi's research interests span the disciplines of chemistry and biology with an emphasis on studies of cell surface sugars important to human health and disease. She was originally trained in organic chemistry and immunology, and today her research group works at the interface of these two disciplines They recently made discoveries that link particular sugars that coat the surfaces of cancer cells with the ability of those disease-causing cells to avoid elimination by the human immune system.  Now her research group is developing medicines that attack cancer cell-surface sugars so as to render the immune system more potent at eliminating disease. Bertozzi also studies other human health problems including tuberculosis infections and rare genetic disorders, using tools from chemistry to power biomedical research.

More profile about the speaker
Carolyn Bertozzi | Speaker | TED.com

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