TEDxPSU
Julia Galef: Why you think you're right -- even if you're wrong
朱莉亚·加莱夫: 为什么你总认为自己是正确的——即使你真的错了
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知性决定一切，特别是在审视自己的信仰时。你是一个倾向于不惜一切代价去保卫自己观点的士兵——还是一个受好奇心驱使的侦察员？朱莉亚·加莱夫调查了这两种思维模式背后的动机，以及它们如何塑造我们解读信息的方式，同时穿插了源自于19世纪法国的一段引人注目的历史教训。当你深信不疑的观念受到挑战时，加莱夫问道：“你最渴望的是什么，你是渴望保卫你的信仰还是渴望尽可能的看清楚这个世界？”
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:12
So I'd like you to imagine for a moment
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我想让你们想象一下，
你是一个身处激烈战争中的士兵。
00:15
that you're a soldier
in the heat of battle.
in the heat of battle.
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00:18
Maybe you're a Roman foot soldier
or a medieval archer
or a medieval archer
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也许你是一个罗马步兵或者中世纪的弓箭手,
或者是一个祖鲁勇士。
00:22
or maybe you're a Zulu warrior.
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不管你是处在怎样的时代和战场，
有些东西是相同的。
有些东西是相同的。
00:24
Regardless of your time and place,
there are some things that are constant.
there are some things that are constant.
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你的肾上腺素上升，
00:28
Your adrenaline is elevated,
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而你的行动源于那些最原始的条件反射，
00:30
and your actions are stemming
from these deeply ingrained reflexes,
from these deeply ingrained reflexes,
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那种出于保护自己和战友
00:35
reflexes rooted in a need
to protect yourself and your side
to protect yourself and your side
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并打败敌人的需求的条件反射。
00:39
and to defeat the enemy.
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00:42
So now, I'd like you to imagine
playing a very different role,
playing a very different role,
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现在，再想象一下
扮演一个完全不同的角色，
扮演一个完全不同的角色，
那就是侦察员。
00:46
that of the scout.
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侦察员的工作不是攻击或者防守。
00:48
The scout's job is not
to attack or defend.
to attack or defend.
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侦察员的工作是认清形势。
00:51
The scout's job is to understand.
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00:54
The scout is the one going out,
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侦察员是那些走出营地
去测定地形、识别出可能的障碍的人。
00:56
mapping the terrain,
identifying potential obstacles.
identifying potential obstacles.
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侦察员也许很希望
刚好在合适的位置有一座桥
刚好在合适的位置有一座桥
01:00
And the scout may hope to learn
that, say, there's a bridge
that, say, there's a bridge
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可以跨过某条河。
01:04
in a convenient location across a river.
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但更重要的是，
侦察员想要弄清楚那里到底有什么，
侦察员想要弄清楚那里到底有什么，
01:06
But above all, the scout
wants to know what's really there,
wants to know what's really there,
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越精确越好。
01:09
as accurately as possible.
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01:12
And in a real, actual army, both
the soldier and the scout are essential.
the soldier and the scout are essential.
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在一支精良的队伍中，
士兵和侦察员都是必不可少的。
士兵和侦察员都是必不可少的。
但是你也可以把它们
各自想象为一种思维模式——
各自想象为一种思维模式——
01:17
But you can also think of each
of these roles as a mindset --
of these roles as a mindset --
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一种关于我们如何在日常生活中处理
01:22
a metaphor for how all of us
process information and ideas
process information and ideas
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信息和想法的比喻。
01:26
in our daily lives.
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01:28
What I'm going to argue today
is that having good judgment,
is that having good judgment,
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今天我将要讨论的是
不管是拥有好的判断力，
不管是拥有好的判断力，
做出正确的预测，
还是做出好的决策，
还是做出好的决策，
01:32
making accurate predictions,
making good decisions,
making good decisions,
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几乎都跟你处于哪种思维模式相关。
01:35
is mostly about which mindset you're in.
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01:38
To illustrate these mindsets in action,
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为了举例说明这两种思维模式，
我将带你们回到19世纪法国的一个地方。
01:41
I'm going to take you back
to 19th-century France,
to 19th-century France,
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在那里，由这张看起来很普通的稿件，
01:45
where this innocuous-looking
piece of paper
piece of paper
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引发了历史上最大的政治丑闻之一。
01:48
launched one of the biggest
political scandals in history.
political scandals in history.
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01:51
It was discovered in 1894
by officers in the French general staff.
by officers in the French general staff.
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它是在1984年
被法国总参谋部的军官发现的。
被法国总参谋部的军官发现的。
01:56
It was torn up in a wastepaper basket,
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被撕碎了扔在一个废纸篓里，
但是当他们把它拼接起来后，
01:59
but when they pieced it back together,
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发现他们中间有人
02:01
they discovered
that someone in their ranks
that someone in their ranks
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在向德国出卖军事机密。
02:03
had been selling
military secrets to Germany.
military secrets to Germany.
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02:06
So they launched a big investigation,
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因此他们开展了深入的调查，
然后他们的怀疑很快集中到了这个人身上，
02:08
and their suspicions
quickly converged on this man,
quickly converged on this man,
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阿尔弗勒德·德雷福斯。
02:12
Alfred Dreyfus.
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02:14
He had a sterling record,
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他没有过任何不光彩的记录，
没做过什么坏事，也没有所谓的动机。
02:16
no past history of wrongdoing,
no motive as far as they could tell.
no motive as far as they could tell.
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02:20
But Dreyfus was the only
Jewish officer at that rank in the army,
Jewish officer at that rank in the army,
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但是德雷福斯是军队里
那个级别中的唯一犹太军官，
那个级别中的唯一犹太军官，
并且不幸的是，那时的法军非常地反犹太。
02:25
and unfortunately at this time,
the French Army was highly anti-Semitic.
the French Army was highly anti-Semitic.
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他们将德雷福斯的笔迹跟那张纸上的对照，
02:29
They compared Dreyfus's handwriting
to that on the memo
to that on the memo
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然后得出了笔迹一致的结论，
02:32
and concluded that it was a match,
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尽管外面的笔迹鉴定专家
02:34
even though outside
professional handwriting experts
professional handwriting experts
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对此持怀疑态度，
02:37
were much less confident
in the similarity,
in the similarity,
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但也于事无补。
02:40
but never mind that.
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他们搜查了德雷福斯的寓所，
02:41
They went and searched
Dreyfus's apartment,
Dreyfus's apartment,
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寻找他从事间谍活动的蛛丝马迹。
02:43
looking for any signs of espionage.
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他们翻遍了他的文件，但一无所获。
02:45
They went through his files,
and they didn't find anything.
and they didn't find anything.
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这使他们更加确信德雷福斯不仅有罪，
02:48
This just convinced them more
that Dreyfus was not only guilty,
that Dreyfus was not only guilty,
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而且还很狡猾，因为很明显在他们搜查之前
02:51
but sneaky as well, because clearly
he had hidden all of the evidence
he had hidden all of the evidence
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他就隐藏了所有的证据。
02:54
before they had managed to get to it.
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02:57
Next, they went and looked
through his personal history
through his personal history
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接下来，他们审查了他的个人历史
寻找任何能表明他有罪的细节。
02:59
for any incriminating details.
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他们跟他的老师谈话。
03:02
They talked to his teachers,
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发现他在学校学过外语，
03:03
they found that he had studied
foreign languages in school,
foreign languages in school,
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这清楚地表明了一种想要在以后的生活中
03:06
which clearly showed a desire
to conspire with foreign governments
to conspire with foreign governments
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跟外国政府相勾结的愿望。
03:10
later in life.
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老师还说德雷福斯出了名的记忆力好，
03:11
His teachers also said that Dreyfus
was known for having a good memory,
was known for having a good memory,
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这不是非常可疑吗？
03:18
which was highly suspicious, right?
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因为间谍需要记住很多东西。
03:20
You know, because a spy
has to remember a lot of things.
has to remember a lot of things.
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03:24
So the case went to trial,
and Dreyfus was found guilty.
and Dreyfus was found guilty.
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因此经过审讯，德雷福斯被判有罪。
03:28
Afterwards, they took him out
into this public square
into this public square
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然后，他们把他带到了公共广场，
仪式性地撕下了他制服上的徽章，
03:32
and ritualistically tore
his insignia from his uniform
his insignia from his uniform
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并折断了他的佩剑。
03:35
and broke his sword in two.
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这件事被称作德雷福斯冤案。
03:37
This was called
the Degradation of Dreyfus.
the Degradation of Dreyfus.
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03:40
And they sentenced him
to life imprisonment
to life imprisonment
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他们判处他终身监禁，
并将其押送到被称为魔鬼岛的地方服役，
03:43
on the aptly named Devil's Island,
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是个远离南美洲海岸贫瘠的岩石小岛。
03:46
which is this barren rock
off the coast of South America.
off the coast of South America.
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03:49
So there he went,
and there he spent his days alone,
and there he spent his days alone,
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在那里，他一个人孤零零地生活，
给法国政府写了一封又一封的信，
03:53
writing letters and letters
to the French government
to the French government
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乞求他们重审他的案子，
并希望通过重审获得清白。
并希望通过重审获得清白。
03:55
begging them to reopen his case
so they could discover his innocence.
so they could discover his innocence.
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03:59
But for the most part,
France considered the matter closed.
France considered the matter closed.
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但是在大多数情形下，
法国政府都认为这件事已经结案。
法国政府都认为这件事已经结案。
04:03
One thing that's really interesting
to me about the Dreyfus Affair
to me about the Dreyfus Affair
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在德雷福斯事件中
让我真正感兴趣的一点是
让我真正感兴趣的一点是
为什么这些军官会如此确信
04:07
is this question of why the officers
were so convinced
were so convinced
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德雷福斯是有罪的。
04:11
that Dreyfus was guilty.
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04:13
I mean, you might even assume
that they were setting him up,
that they were setting him up,
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我是说，你可能以为他们是在给他设套，
他们在故意地诬陷他。
04:16
that they were intentionally framing him.
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但是历史学家却不这样认为。
04:18
But historians don't think
that's what happened.
that's what happened.
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据我们所知，
04:20
As far as we can tell,
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这些军官由衷地相信德雷福斯是有罪的。
04:21
the officers genuinely believed
that the case against Dreyfus was strong.
that the case against Dreyfus was strong.
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这也就会使你感到好奇：
04:26
Which makes you wonder:
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如果在只有微不足道的证据的情况下
04:28
What does it say about the human mind
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我们就可以给一个人定罪，
04:30
that we can find such paltry evidence
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那么这对人类的思维来说意味着什么？
04:33
to be compelling enough to convict a man?
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04:36
Well, this is a case of what scientists
call "motivated reasoning."
call "motivated reasoning."
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然而，这就是科学家
称之为“动机性推理”的一个案例。
称之为“动机性推理”的一个案例。
正是这种存在于我们无意识的动机
04:40
It's this phenomenon in which
our unconscious motivations,
our unconscious motivations,
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以及我们的欲望和恐惧，
04:43
our desires and fears,
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塑造了我们解读信息的方式。
04:45
shape the way we interpret information.
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有些信息和想法
感觉就像是我们的盟友。
感觉就像是我们的盟友。
04:48
Some information, some ideas,
feel like our allies.
feel like our allies.
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我们希望它们能赢。
我们想要保护它们。
我们想要保护它们。
04:51
We want them to win.
We want to defend them.
We want to defend them.
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还有些信息和想法感觉就像是敌人，
04:54
And other information
or ideas are the enemy,
or ideas are the enemy,
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我们就想要打垮它们。
04:56
and we want to shoot them down.
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04:59
So this is why I call
motivated reasoning, "soldier mindset."
motivated reasoning, "soldier mindset."
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这就是为什么我把动机性推理
称作“士兵型思维模式”。
称作“士兵型思维模式”。
05:03
Probably most of you have never persecuted
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可能你们大部分人从来都没有做过
以叛国罪去迫害一个
法籍犹太军官这样的事，
法籍犹太军官这样的事，
05:07
a French-Jewish officer for high treason,
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没错吧，
05:09
I assume,
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但很可能你关注过体育或者政治新闻，
因此你大概注意过，
因此你大概注意过，
05:10
but maybe you've followed sports
or politics, so you might have noticed
or politics, so you might have noticed
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举个例子来说，当裁判判你支持的
05:15
that when the referee judges
that your team committed a foul,
that your team committed a foul,
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队伍犯规时，
05:19
for example,
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你会很积极地去找理由
证明他的判罚是错的。
证明他的判罚是错的。
05:21
you're highly motivated
to find reasons why he's wrong.
to find reasons why he's wrong.
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05:24
But if he judges that the other team
committed a foul -- awesome!
committed a foul -- awesome!
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但是当裁判判对方犯规时——太棒了！
判得很正确，没必要深究了。
05:27
That's a good call,
let's not examine it too closely.
let's not examine it too closely.
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05:30
Or, maybe you've read
an article or a study
an article or a study
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也许你读过一些对于有关政策
有争议的文章或研究报告，
05:32
that examined some controversial policy,
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比如说关于死刑的。
05:35
like capital punishment.
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05:37
And, as researchers have demonstrated,
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就像研究人员已经证实的一样，
如果你支持死刑
05:39
if you support capital punishment
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而研究的结果却表明
它并不能有效减少犯罪，
它并不能有效减少犯罪，
05:41
and the study shows
that it's not effective,
that it's not effective,
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那么你会很积极地寻找各种理由
05:44
then you're highly motivated
to find all the reasons
to find all the reasons
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去证明这项研究有不妥之处。
05:47
why the study was poorly designed.
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但是如果它表明死刑能够有效减少犯罪，
05:49
But if it shows
that capital punishment works,
that capital punishment works,
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那你就会认可这项研究。
05:51
it's a good study.
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反之，如果你反对死刑，也一样。
05:53
And vice versa: if you don't
support capital punishment, same thing.
support capital punishment, same thing.
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我们的判断无意识地受到
05:56
Our judgment is strongly
influenced, unconsciously,
influenced, unconsciously,
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个人喜好的强烈影响。
05:59
by which side we want to win.
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06:02
And this is ubiquitous.
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而且这种现象是普遍存在的。
它影响着我们如何看待健康和人际关系，
06:03
This shapes how we think
about our health, our relationships,
about our health, our relationships,
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如何决定投谁的票，
06:07
how we decide how to vote,
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以及怎样看待公平或道德。
06:08
what we consider fair or ethical.
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06:12
What's most scary to me
about motivated reasoning
about motivated reasoning
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关于动机性推理或者说士兵型思维模式，
最让我觉得可怕的一点是
06:14
or soldier mindset,
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它受潜意识影响之深。
06:15
is how unconscious it is.
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我们认为自己是客观公正的，
06:17
We can think we're being
objective and fair-minded
objective and fair-minded
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但结果却是毁掉了一个无辜者的一生。
06:20
and still wind up ruining the life
of an innocent man.
of an innocent man.
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06:25
However, fortunately for Dreyfus,
his story is not over.
his story is not over.
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然而，幸运的是
对于德雷福斯来说，一切还没结束。
对于德雷福斯来说，一切还没结束。
这是皮卡尔上校。
06:27
This is Colonel Picquart.
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他是法军中的另一个高级军官，
06:29
He's another high-ranking officer
in the French Army,
in the French Army,
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像大多数人一样，他也认为德雷福斯有罪。
06:31
and like most people,
he assumed Dreyfus was guilty.
he assumed Dreyfus was guilty.
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06:34
Also like most people in the army,
he was at least casually anti-Semitic.
he was at least casually anti-Semitic.
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跟军队中大多数人也一样，
他至少表面上是反犹太的。
他至少表面上是反犹太的。
但是在某个时间点上，
皮卡尔开始怀疑：
皮卡尔开始怀疑：
06:39
But at a certain point,
Picquart began to suspect:
Picquart began to suspect:
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06:43
"What if we're all wrong about Dreyfus?"
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“如果我们所有人都错怪了德雷福斯呢？”
06:46
What happened was,
he had discovered evidence
he had discovered evidence
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当时的情况是，
他发现了一些证据
他发现了一些证据
表明德国间谍的活动还在继续，
06:48
that the spying for Germany had continued,
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即便是在德雷福斯入狱之后。
06:51
even after Dreyfus was in prison.
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06:53
And he had also discovered
that another officer in the army
that another officer in the army
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他还发现军队中另一个军官的笔迹
跟那张纸上的笔迹完全匹配，
06:56
had handwriting that perfectly
matched the memo,
matched the memo,
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比德雷福斯的笔迹更加相符。
06:59
much closer than Dreyfus's handwriting.
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07:02
So he brought these discoveries
to his superiors,
to his superiors,
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因此他带着这些疑点找到他的上级，
07:06
but to his dismay,
they either didn't care
they either didn't care
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令人沮丧的是，他们要么不在乎，
要么提出一些精心编造，想当然的理由
去解释他的发现，
去解释他的发现，
07:09
or came up with elaborate rationalizations
to explain his findings,
to explain his findings,
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比如说，“嗯，你的发现刚好证明另一个间谍
07:13
like, "Well, all you've really shown,
Picquart, is that there's another spy
Picquart, is that there's another spy
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模仿了德雷福斯的笔迹，
07:18
who learned how to mimic
Dreyfus's handwriting,
Dreyfus's handwriting,
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并且接替了德雷福斯的间谍位置。
07:21
and he picked up the torch of spying
after Dreyfus left.
after Dreyfus left.
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07:25
But Dreyfus is still guilty."
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但是德雷福斯仍然是有罪的。”
07:27
Eventually, Picquart managed
to get Dreyfus exonerated.
to get Dreyfus exonerated.
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最终，皮卡尔让德雷福斯重获清白。
但是花了他10年的时间，
07:30
But it took him 10 years,
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而且在这期间
他自己也以对军队不忠的罪名
他自己也以对军队不忠的罪名
07:32
and for part of that time,
he himself was in prison
he himself was in prison
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被投入了监狱。
07:35
for the crime of disloyalty to the army.
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07:38
A lot of people feel like Picquart
can't really be the hero of this story
can't really be the hero of this story
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很多人觉得，在这个故事中
皮卡尔算不上真正的英雄，
皮卡尔算不上真正的英雄，
因为他反犹太，
我也同意这是他不好的一点。
我也同意这是他不好的一点。
07:44
because he was an anti-Semite
and that's bad, which I agree with.
and that's bad, which I agree with.
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07:49
But personally, for me,
the fact that Picquart was anti-Semitic
the fact that Picquart was anti-Semitic
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但就我个人而言，
正是因为他反犹太，
正是因为他反犹太，
才使得他的行为更令人软佩，
07:53
actually makes his actions more admirable,
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因为他跟那些同僚带有相同的偏见，
07:56
because he had the same prejudices,
the same reasons to be biased
the same reasons to be biased
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也有相同的理由去倾向于有罪结论，
07:59
as his fellow officers,
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但是他那种找出并维护真相的动力
战胜了一切。
战胜了一切。
08:01
but his motivation to find the truth
and uphold it trumped all of that.
and uphold it trumped all of that.
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08:07
So to me,
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所以对我而言，
08:08
Picquart is a poster child
for what I call "scout mindset."
for what I call "scout mindset."
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皮卡尔就是我称之为
“侦察员型思维模式”中的典型代表。
“侦察员型思维模式”中的典型代表。
08:12
It's the drive not to make
one idea win or another lose,
one idea win or another lose,
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这不是非让两个想法分出输赢不可，
而是尽可能诚实和准确地
08:16
but just to see what's really there
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找出事实真相的一种驱动力，
08:18
as honestly and accurately as you can,
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即使真相并不那么令人赏心悦目。
08:21
even if it's not pretty
or convenient or pleasant.
or convenient or pleasant.
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08:25
This mindset is what
I'm personally passionate about.
I'm personally passionate about.
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这种思维模式是我个人所推崇的。
过去几年我一直在调查并想找出
08:28
And I've spent the last few years
examining and trying to figure out
examining and trying to figure out
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侦察员型思维模式的成因。
08:33
what causes scout mindset.
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为什么有些人，至少在有些时候，
08:35
Why are some people, sometimes at least,
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能够去掉自己内心的歧视、偏见和倾向，
08:39
able to cut through their own prejudices
and biases and motivations
and biases and motivations
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而是尽可能尝试着
08:42
and just try to see the facts
and the evidence
and the evidence
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客观地找出事实和证据。
08:45
as objectively as they can?
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08:47
And the answer is emotional.
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而答案就是情感。
08:51
So, just as soldier mindset
is rooted in emotions
is rooted in emotions
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就像士兵型思维模式是出于
08:54
like defensiveness or tribalism,
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像防御性和部落主义这样的情感，
08:58
scout mindset is, too.
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侦察员型思维模式也一样。
只不过是来源于不同的情感。
09:00
It's just rooted in different emotions.
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例如，侦察员都有很强的好奇心。
09:02
For example, scouts are curious.
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他们更可能会因为
09:05
They're more likely to say
they feel pleasure
they feel pleasure
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获得新的信息
09:09
when they learn new information
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或渴望解开一个谜题而感到开心。
09:10
or an itch to solve a puzzle.
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09:13
They're more likely to feel intrigued
when they encounter something
when they encounter something
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他们会对那些与他们的预期不相符的
事情更感兴趣。
09:16
that contradicts their expectations.
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09:19
Scouts also have different values.
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侦察员也拥有不同的价值观。
他们可能会觉得
09:21
They're more likely to say
they think it's virtuous
they think it's virtuous
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检验自己的信仰是一件善事，
09:24
to test your own beliefs,
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而可能不会说那些改变想法的人
09:25
and they're less likely to say
that someone who changes his mind
that someone who changes his mind
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看起来很懦弱。
09:29
seems weak.
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总之，侦察员是以事实为根据的，
09:30
And above all, scouts are grounded,
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也就是说他们的自我价值观
09:32
which means their self-worth as a person
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不是跟他们在某个事件上的
对错绑在一起的。
对错绑在一起的。
09:36
isn't tied to how right or wrong
they are about any particular topic.
they are about any particular topic.
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所以他们可能相信死刑能减少犯罪。
09:42
So they can believe
that capital punishment works.
that capital punishment works.
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但如果研究表明它不能，他们可能会说
09:45
If studies come out showing
that it doesn't, they can say,
that it doesn't, they can say,
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“呵，看起来是我错了，
但这并不说明我坏或者蠢。”
但这并不说明我坏或者蠢。”
09:48
"Huh. Looks like I might be wrong.
Doesn't mean I'm bad or stupid."
Doesn't mean I'm bad or stupid."
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09:53
This cluster of traits
is what researchers have found --
is what researchers have found --
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这就是研究人员所发现的特征——
而且我也发现了——
09:58
and I've also found anecdotally --
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可以预测好的判断。
10:00
predicts good judgment.
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10:02
And the key takeaway I want
to leave you with about those traits
to leave you with about those traits
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而我想要强调的关于这些特征的关键点是
10:05
is that they're primarily
not about how smart you are
not about how smart you are
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它们根本上来说跟你有多聪明
或者你知道多少无关。
10:09
or about how much you know.
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事实上，它们跟智商完全无关。
10:11
In fact, they don't correlate
very much with IQ at all.
very much with IQ at all.
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10:14
They're about how you feel.
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它们跟你的感觉有关。
10:16
There's a quote that I keep
coming back to, by Saint-Exupéry.
coming back to, by Saint-Exupéry.
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我要引用圣埃克苏佩里的一句话。
他是《小王子》的作者。
10:20
He's the author of "The Little Prince."
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他说，“如果你想造一艘船，
10:22
He said, "If you want to build a ship,
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10:26
don't drum up your men
to collect wood and give orders
to collect wood and give orders
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不要雇人去收集木头，不要发号施令，
也不要分配任务，
10:30
and distribute the work.
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10:32
Instead, teach them to yearn
for the vast and endless sea."
for the vast and endless sea."
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而是去激发他们对海洋的渴望”。
10:38
In other words, I claim,
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换句话说，我认为，
10:40
if we really want to improve
our judgment as individuals
our judgment as individuals
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如果我们真的想提高判断力，
不管是作为个人
不管是作为个人
还是作为社会，
10:44
and as societies,
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我们最需要的不是更多逻辑上，
10:45
what we need most
is not more instruction in logic
is not more instruction in logic
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修辞上、概率上或者经济上的指导，
10:49
or rhetoric or probability or economics,
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即便这些东西也都很有价值。
10:52
even though those things
are quite valuable.
are quite valuable.
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而我们要用好这些原理，最需要的
10:54
But what we most need
to use those principles well
to use those principles well
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就是侦察员型思维模式。
10:58
is scout mindset.
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我们需要改变我们感觉事物的方式。
10:59
We need to change the way we feel.
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11:01
We need to learn how to feel proud
instead of ashamed
instead of ashamed
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当我们注意到自己可能
在某件事上出错了的时候，
在某件事上出错了的时候，
我们要感到自豪而不是羞愧。
11:05
when we notice we might
have been wrong about something.
have been wrong about something.
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当我们遇到一些与
我们的信仰相冲突的信息时，
我们的信仰相冲突的信息时，
11:08
We need to learn how to feel intrigued
instead of defensive
instead of defensive
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我们要学会感到好奇而不是抵触。
11:11
when we encounter some information
that contradicts our beliefs.
that contradicts our beliefs.
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11:16
So the question I want
to leave you with is:
to leave you with is:
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因此我想要留给你们的问题是：
11:19
What do you most yearn for?
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你最渴望什么？
11:22
Do you yearn to defend your own beliefs?
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你是渴望保护你的信仰？
11:26
Or do you yearn to see the world
as clearly as you possibly can?
as clearly as you possibly can?
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还是渴望尽自己所能去看清这个世界？
11:30
Thank you.
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谢谢。
（掌声）
11:31
(Applause)
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ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Julia Galef - WriterJulia Galef investigates how and why people change their minds.
Why you should listen
Julia Galef co-founded the Center for Applied Rationality, a nonprofit organization devoted to helping people improve their reasoning and decision-making, particularly with the aim of addressing global problems. Julia’s background is originally in statistics, and she did social science research at Columbia and Harvard Business Schools for several years before becoming a writer for venues such as Slate, Science, Scientific American and more. For the last six years, Julia has hosted the Rationally Speaking podcast.
Julia Galef | Speaker | TED.com