TED2007
Steven Pinker: The surprising decline in violence
スティーブン・ピンカー： 暴力にまつわる社会的通念
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聖書の時代から現在まで暴力が減少してきていることをスティーブン・ピンカーは図示して説明します。イラクやダルフールの非論理的で腹立たしい現実もありますが、それでも人類史上もっとも平和な時代を我々は生きていると語ります。
Steven Pinker - Psychologist
Steven Pinker is a professor of cognitive science (the study of the human mind) who writes about language, mind and human nature. Full bio
Steven Pinker is a professor of cognitive science (the study of the human mind) who writes about language, mind and human nature. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:25
Images like this, from the Auschwitz concentration camp,
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アウシュビッツ強制収容所のようなイメージが
00:29
have been seared into our consciousness during the twentieth century
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20世紀を通して 我々の意識に焼きついて
00:34
and have given us a new understanding of who we are,
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我々という人間の正体や 我々のたどった道 我々が生きる時代の
00:39
where we've come from and the times we live in.
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新しい解釈をもたらしました
00:42
During the twentieth century, we witnessed the atrocities
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20世紀には数々の残虐行為が見られました
00:46
of Stalin, Hitler, Mao, Pol Pot, Rwanda and other genocides,
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スターリン ヒトラー 毛沢東 ポルポト ルワンダやその他の集団虐殺
00:51
and even though the twenty-first century is only seven years old,
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21世紀に突入して まだ７年しか経過していませんが
00:55
we have already witnessed an ongoing genocide in Darfur
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既に ダルフール紛争やイラクの日常となった
00:59
and the daily horrors of Iraq.
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酷い状況を目にしてきました
01:02
This has led to a common understanding of our situation,
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こうしてある共通の理解に至りました
01:05
namely that modernity has brought us terrible violence, and perhaps
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現代社会は 暴力にあふれ
01:09
that native peoples lived in a state of harmony that we have departed from, to our peril.
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調和のとれた原始の時代から離れてしまったから今の危難があるのです
01:12
Here is an example
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例えば 数年前の感謝祭のときの
01:17
from an op-ed on Thanksgiving, in the Boston Globe
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ボストングローブ紙の論評です
01:20
a couple of years ago, where the writer wrote, "The Indian life
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“インディアンの生活は苦しいものであったが
01:24
was a difficult one, but there were no employment problems,
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雇用問題は無く 仲間意識が強く
01:27
community harmony was strong, substance abuse unknown,
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薬物乱用など存在せず
01:30
crime nearly non-existent, what warfare there was between tribes
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犯罪は ほぼ皆無で 部族間の争いは
01:34
was largely ritualistic and seldom resulted in indiscriminate
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主に儀式的で 無差別虐殺や
01:37
or wholesale slaughter." Now, you're all familiar with this treacle.
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大量虐殺につながることは滅多になかった” よく聞くお話です
01:42
We teach it to our children. We hear it on television
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子どもに教え テレビや絵本でも耳にします
01:45
and in storybooks. Now, the original title of this session
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このセッションのテーマは“常識を疑う” ですが
01:50
was, "Everything You Know Is Wrong," and I'm going to present evidence
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今述べた常識的な理解の誤りについて
01:53
that this particular part of our common understanding is wrong,
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論証したいと思います
01:56
that, in fact, our ancestors were far more violent than we are,
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実際に我々の祖先は非常に残虐で
02:00
that violence has been in decline for long stretches of time,
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暴力は長い事 減少してきており
02:04
and that today we are probably living in the most peaceful time in our species' existence.
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我々は おそらく人類史上 もっとも平和な時を生きています
02:07
Now, in the decade of Darfur and Iraq,
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ダルフールやイラクでの紛争が起きている時代に
02:12
a statement like that might seem somewhere between hallucinatory
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このような陳述は 幻覚か不当にすら感じますが
02:15
and obscene. But I'm going to try to convince you
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これが正しい理解であると説明していきます
02:18
that that is the correct picture. The decline of violence
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暴力の減少はフラクタル現象です
02:24
is a fractal phenomenon. You can see it over millennia,
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これは数千年 数百年 数十年
02:27
over centuries, over decades and over years,
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そして数年のスケールで観測できます
02:31
although there seems to have been a tipping point at the onset
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16世紀の理性の時代の始まりが
02:33
of the Age of Reason in the sixteenth century. One sees it
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転換点だったようです
02:37
all over the world, although not homogeneously.
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一様ではなくとも世界中に見られます
02:41
It's especially evident in the West, beginning with England
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啓蒙運動の時代 英国やオランダで始まり
02:44
and Holland around the time of the Enlightenment.
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特に西洋では顕著です
02:47
Let me take you on a journey of several powers of 10 --
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では数千年から数年のスケールで
02:51
from the millennium scale to the year scale --
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説明していきましょう
02:53
to try to persuade you of this. Until 10,000 years ago, all humans
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一万年前まで人間は狩猟採集型の生活をして
02:57
lived as hunter-gatherers, without permanent settlements
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永住地や政府はありませんでした
03:00
or government. And this is the state that's commonly thought
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これは一般に原始的な調和の一つとして
03:03
to be one of primordial harmony. But the archaeologist
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考えられる状態ですが
03:09
Lawrence Keeley, looking at casualty rates
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考古学者のローレンス キーリーは
03:13
among contemporary hunter-gatherers, which is our best source
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現代の狩猟採取者の死亡率を参考にして
03:17
of evidence about this way of life, has shown a rather different conclusion.
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狩猟採取社会の新しい姿を描きました
03:23
Here is a graph that he put together
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キーリーはこんなグラフに
03:25
showing the percentage of male deaths due to warfare
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数々の狩猟採取社会での
03:28
in a number of foraging, or hunting and gathering societies.
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争いによる男性死者の割合をまとめました
03:33
The red bars correspond to the likelihood that a man will die
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赤い棒線は 自然死ではなくて
03:39
at the hands of another man, as opposed to passing away
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誰かに殺される確率を示しています
03:42
of natural causes, in a variety of foraging societies
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ニューギニア高地やアマゾン熱帯雨林の
03:46
in the New Guinea Highlands and the Amazon Rainforest.
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様々な原住民社会におけるものです
03:50
And they range from a rate of almost a 60 percent chance that a man will die
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殺される確率が60%の場所もあれば
03:53
at the hands of another man to, in the case of the Gebusi,
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わずか15％の場所もあります
03:57
only a 15 percent chance. The tiny, little blue bar in the lower
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左下に見られる短い青い棒線は
04:01
left-hand corner plots the corresponding statistic from United States
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20世紀の欧米の統計を表わしたもので
04:05
and Europe in the twentieth century, and includes all the deaths
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２度の世界大戦の犠牲者を含んでいます
04:09
of both World Wars. If the death rate in tribal warfare had prevailed
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もし同じ死亡率のまま20世紀を迎えていたら
04:14
during the 20th century, there would have been two billion deaths rather than 100 million.
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1億人どころか20億人が死んでいたでしょう
04:20
Also at the millennium scale, we can look
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千年スケールの話の続きですが 聖書から
04:23
at the way of life of early civilizations such as the ones described
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古代文明における社会の風習を見ることができます
04:28
in the Bible. And in this supposed source of our moral values,
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道徳的価値の源泉と考えられる聖書の中に
04:33
one can read descriptions of what was expected in warfare,
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戦争に対する見方がわかる記述があります
04:37
such as the following from Numbers 31: "And they warred
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例えば 31章には“わが主がモーゼに命令すると
04:40
against the Midianites as the Lord commanded Moses,
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彼らはミデヤン人と戦い 彼らは
04:43
and they slew all the males. And Moses said unto them,
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すべての男どもを殺した そしてモーゼは言った
04:46
'Have you saved all the women alive? Now, therefore, kill every male
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女は生かしておいたか？ 直ちに 男の子たちを皆 殺せ
04:50
among the little ones and kill every woman that hath known man
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男と寝て男を知っている女も皆殺せ
04:53
by lying with him, but all the women children that have not know a man
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ただし 男を知らない娘は あなたたちのために
04:57
by lying with him keep alive for yourselves.'" In other words,
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生かしておくがよい” と書かれています
05:00
kill the men; kill the children; if you see any virgins,
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これは男や子どもは殺し 処女を見つけた時は生かしておいて
05:05
then you can keep them alive so that you can rape them.
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強姦してもよい という意味です
05:08
You can find four or five passages in the Bible of this ilk.
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聖書には このような記述が4~5か所に見られます
05:12
Also in the Bible, one sees that the death penalty
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また聖書によると 死刑が容認される罪は
05:15
was the accepted punishment for crimes such as homosexuality,
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同性愛 姦通 冒涜
05:20
adultery, blasphemy, idolatry, talking back to your parents --
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偶像崇拝 親への口答え
05:24
(Laughter) -- and picking up sticks on the Sabbath.
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安息日に枝を拾うことなどが含まれます
05:28
Well, let's click the zoom lens
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では一桁分ズームインして
05:31
down one order of magnitude, and look at the century scale.
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世紀のスケールで見てみましょう
05:34
Although we don't have statistics for warfare throughout
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中世から現代に至る期間の 戦争の統計はありませんが
05:39
the Middle Ages to modern times,
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歴史をたどれば 社会的に
05:40
we know just from conventional history -- the evidence
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容認された暴力が減少してきたのは
05:43
was under our nose all along that there has been a reduction
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はっきりとしています
05:47
in socially sanctioned forms of violence.
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例えば どんな社会でも 手足の切断や拷問は
05:50
For example, any social history will reveal that mutilation and torture
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刑罰として規定された形式でした
05:54
were routine forms of criminal punishment. The kind of infraction
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現在 違反行為に課せられるのは罰金ですが
05:57
today that would give you a fine, in those days would result in
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当時は舌や耳を切られたり 目をつぶされたり
06:01
your tongue being cut out, your ears being cut off, you being blinded,
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手を切断されたりしたのです
06:05
a hand being chopped off and so on.
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死刑も火あぶりや解体刑 車裂きの刑
06:07
There were numerous ingenious forms of sadistic capital punishment:
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八つ裂きの刑など
06:12
burning at the stake, disemboweling, breaking on the wheel,
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残酷なものは多々ありました
06:15
being pulled apart by horses and so on.
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王様の批判や パン泥棒など 暴力とは関係のない罪にも
06:18
The death penalty was a sanction for a long list of non-violent crimes:
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死刑は適用され 労働力を確保するために
06:22
criticizing the king, stealing a loaf of bread. Slavery, of course,
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奴隷制が多用されていました
06:27
was the preferred labor-saving device, and cruelty was
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娯楽も残酷で 一番強烈なのは
06:31
a popular form of entertainment. Perhaps the most vivid example
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猫の火あぶりです 吊るされた猫が
06:34
was the practice of cat burning, in which a cat was hoisted
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火の中に入れられ 痛みで鳴き声を上げ
06:37
on a stage and lowered in a sling into a fire,
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焼死する姿を見て 観客はギャーッと声をあげながら
06:40
and the spectators shrieked in laughter as the cat, howling in pain,
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笑っていたのです
06:46
was burned to death.
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殺人に関しては 多くの行政機関が
06:48
What about one-on-one murder? Well, there, there are good statistics,
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死因を記録しているので 統計データが出されています
06:51
because many municipalities recorded the cause of death.
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犯罪学者のマヌエル アイズナーは
06:57
The criminologist Manuel Eisner
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ヨーロッパ全域で見つけた
07:02
scoured all of the historical records across Europe
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殺人の全記録を研究し そのデータを
07:04
for homicide rates in any village, hamlet, town, county
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国家の統計と
07:09
that he could find, and he supplemented them
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継ぎ合わせました
07:11
with national data, when nations started keeping statistics.
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対数スケールでプロットすると 年間に10万人あたり100件の殺人という
07:15
He plotted on a logarithmic scale, going from 100 deaths
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中世の代表的な値から始まりますが
07:22
per 100,000 people per year, which was approximately the rate
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その数字はどんどん低下して
07:28
of homicide in the Middle Ages. And the figure plummets down
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ヨーロッパ諸国では 年間に 10万人あたり１件以下まで減ります
07:33
to less than one homicide per 100,000 people per year
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そして 1960年に少し上昇が見られます
07:38
in seven or eight European countries. Then, there is a slight uptick
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ロックンロールが道徳的価値観を下げるという指摘は
07:42
in the 1960s. The people who said that rock 'n' roll would lead
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あながち間違いとも言えないようです
07:46
to the decline of moral values actually had a grain of truth to that.
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ともかく 殺人件数は現代に至るまで
07:50
But there was a decline from at least two orders of magnitude
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16世紀初頭を境に
07:54
in homicide from the Middle Ages to the present,
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少なくとも二桁の減少を遂げました
07:57
and the elbow occurred in the early sixteenth century.
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10年単位で見てみましょう
08:02
Let's click down now to the decade scale.
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非政府組織の統計によれば
08:04
According to non-governmental organizations
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ヨーロッパと南北アメリカでは1945年以来
08:07
that keep such statistics, since 1945, in Europe and the Americas,
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戦争や犠牲者を出す民族暴動
08:11
there has been a steep decline in interstate wars,
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虐殺や軍事クーデターは減少しています
08:15
in deadly ethnic riots or pogroms, and in military coups,
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世界的にも 戦争による犠牲者は激減しています
08:19
even in South America. Worldwide, there's been a steep decline
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黄色の棒線は1950年から現在に至るまでの
08:23
in deaths in interstate wars. The yellow bars here show the number
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一つの戦争の年間犠牲者を示しています
08:29
of deaths per war per year from 1950 to the present.
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50年代には一つの戦争の年間犠牲者数が ６万５千人でしたが
08:34
And, as you can see, the death rate goes down from 65,000 deaths
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2000年以降は酷い状況とは言え
08:38
per conflict per year in the 1950s to less than 2,000 deaths
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年間犠牲者数は2千人以下まで減少しています
08:42
per conflict per year in this decade, as horrific as it is.
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一年スケールで見ても 暴力の減少がわかります
08:46
Even in the year scale, one can see a decline of violence.
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冷戦終結の後 内戦や集団虐殺は減りました
08:50
Since the end of the Cold War, there have been fewer civil wars,
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第二次世界大戦後 90%の減少です
08:53
fewer genocides -- indeed, a 90 percent reduction since post-World War II highs --
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殺人や暴力犯罪における60年代の上昇分も取り返しました
08:59
and even a reversal of the 1960s uptick in homicide and violent crime.
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これは FBI がまとめた他殺の統計です
09:05
This is from the FBI Uniform Crime Statistics. You can see
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50年代と60年代は暴力が抑えられていましたが
09:09
that there is a fairly low rate of violence in the '50s and the '60s,
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その後 何十年か高めの数字を経て
09:13
then it soared upward for several decades, and began
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1990年代に激減し始め
09:17
a precipitous decline, starting in the 1990s, so that it went back
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ほぼ60年代のレベルへと戻りました
09:21
to the level that was last enjoyed in 1960.
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クリントン大統領 ありがとう
09:25
President Clinton, if you're here, thank you.
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（笑）
09:27
(Laughter)
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さて これだけ大切な事実に対し
09:29
So the question is, why are so many people so wrong
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誤解が生じる理由は多々あると思います
09:32
about something so important? I think there are a number of reasons.
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報道が充実したということも理由の一つです
09:36
One of them is we have better reporting. The Associated Press
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AP通信は16世紀の修道士よりも
09:39
is a better chronicler of wars over the surface of the Earth
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戦争に関して上をいく年代史家です
09:43
than sixteenth-century monks were.
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認知的錯覚によって ある具体的な事例を思い出すのが簡単になるほど
09:47
There's a cognitive illusion. We cognitive psychologists know that the easier it is
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先入観が強くなるというのが
09:52
to recall specific instances of something,
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認知心理学の知見です
09:55
the higher the probability that you assign to it.
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新聞で目にする残虐な写真やニュースは
09:58
Things that we read about in the paper with gory footage
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老衰で亡くなるお年寄りよりも 記憶に焼きつきやすいのです
10:02
burn into memory more than reports of a lot more people dying
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世論や政策提言における力学の問題として
10:06
in their beds of old age. There are dynamics in the opinion
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状況は改善し続けていると訴え 注目をあびて
10:12
and advocacy markets: no one ever attracted observers, advocates
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支持や支援を集めることはできません
10:17
and donors by saying
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（笑）
10:19
things just seem to be getting better and better.
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先住民に対して罪悪感があるため
10:21
(Laughter)
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現代の知識人たちは西洋文化の特長を
10:22
There's guilt about our treatment of native peoples
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素直に認めようとはしません
10:25
in modern intellectual life, and an unwillingness to acknowledge
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道徳の変化が行動の変化を追い抜くこともあるでしょう
10:28
there could be anything good about Western culture.
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暴力が減少した理由の一つは
10:31
And of course, our change in standards can outpace the change
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人々が当時の大虐殺や残酷な行為に嫌気がさしたからです
10:36
in behavior. One of the reasons violence went down
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今もそうですが 道徳が行動を追い越して
10:39
is that people got sick of the carnage and cruelty in their time.
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変化してしまうと 当時の歴史的な基準に照らした場合以上に
10:42
That's a process that seems to be continuing,
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野蛮であったと見なされます
10:45
but if it outstrips behavior by the standards of the day,
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よって 15年の司法手続を経た殺人犯たちが
10:49
things always look more barbaric than they would have been
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薬殺刑で死刑になることが 気にかかるのも無理はありません
10:52
by historic standards. So today, we get exercised -- and rightly so --
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数百年前であれば王様を批判したことで
10:56
if a handful of murderers get executed by lethal injection
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10分程度の裁判にかけられ
11:02
in Texas after a 15-year appeal process. We don't consider
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火あぶりの刑に処せられたかもしれません
11:07
that a couple of hundred years ago, they may have been burned
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むしろ 幾度となく繰り返されたことだったでしょう
11:10
at the stake for criticizing the king after a trial
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今日 死刑制度は野蛮な行為として
11:13
that lasted 10 minutes, and indeed, that that would have been repeated
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捉えられています
11:16
over and over again. Today, we look at capital punishment
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基準の向上とは見なされません
11:21
as evidence of how low our behavior can sink,
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なぜ暴力が減少したのか 誰もわかりませんが
11:24
rather than how high our standards have risen.
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私が知っている４つの説明は どれも
11:28
Well, why has violence declined? No one really knows,
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ある程度うなずけるものです
11:31
but I have read four explanations, all of which, I think,
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一つ目はトマスホッブズが正しいというものです
11:36
have some grain of plausibility. The first is, maybe
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ホッブズによると 人間の自然状態とは “孤独で貧しく
11:39
Thomas Hobbes got it right. He was the one who said
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不機嫌で残酷 しかも短命”
11:42
that life in a state of nature was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish
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血の渇望や 攻撃的な本能や
11:47
and short." Not because, he argued,
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縄張り争いが原因なのではなく
11:51
humans have some primordial thirst for blood
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無政府状態のロジックが原因だと言っています
11:54
or aggressive instinct or territorial imperative,
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無政府状態では やられる前にやらなければおしまいです
11:58
but because of the logic of anarchy. In a state of anarchy,
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トーマス シェリングがこれについて
12:01
there's a constant temptation to invade your neighbors preemptively,
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自宅の地下で物音がした状況で例示しています
12:05
before they invade you. More recently, Thomas Schelling
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アメリカ人の常として
12:08
gives the analogy of a homeowner who hears a rustling
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ベッド脇から銃を掴み 階下へ降ります
12:11
in the basement. Being a good American, he has a pistol
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目に飛び込んだのは 銃を持った侵入者
12:13
in the nightstand, pulls out his gun, and walks down the stairs.
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お互いに考えるのは
12:17
And what does he see but a burglar with a gun in his hand.
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“人殺しはいやだが 撃たれるぐらいなら
12:20
Now, each one of them is thinking,
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その前に撃った方がよさそうだ
12:21
"I don't really want to kill that guy, but he's about to kill me.
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奴も殺す気はないかもしれないが
12:25
Maybe I had better shoot him, before he shoots me,
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殺される可能性があることを
12:29
especially since, even if he doesn't want to kill me,
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恐れているだろう”
12:31
he's probably worrying right now that I might kill him
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狩猟採集の部族はこの一連の考えをたどり
12:34
before he kills me." And so on.
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襲われる恐怖から 相手を襲うのです
12:37
Hunter-gatherer peoples explicitly go through this train of thought,
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さて 抑止力がこの問題の解決策の一つです
12:42
and will often raid their neighbors out of fear of being raided first.
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先制攻撃はしませんが もしも侵略されたら
12:47
Now, one way of dealing with this problem is by deterrence.
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はげしく報復するという方針を公言しておくのです
12:50
You don't strike first, but you have a publicly announced policy
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このポリシーは 虚勢と見なされがちですが
12:55
that you will retaliate savagely if you are invaded.
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本気だと思われたときにだけ効力を発揮します
12:58
The only thing is that it's
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本気と知らせるためには 全ての侵入に復讐を果たし
13:00
liable to having its bluff called, and therefore can only work
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借りは必ず返して やがて血の復讐に至るのです
13:05
if it's credible. To make it credible, you must avenge all insults
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ギャング映画の世界です ホッブスの解決策である「リヴァイアサン」では
13:10
and settle all scores, which leads to the cycles of bloody vendetta.
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暴力の公使における正統性を
13:14
Life becomes an episode of "The Sopranos." Hobbes' solution,
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リヴァイアサンという民主的機関だけに帰属させた状態なら
13:19
the "Leviathan," was that if authority for the legitimate use
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攻撃の企てが減るというものでした
13:23
of violence was vested in a single democratic agency -- a leviathan --
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なぜなら いかなる攻撃も罰せられ
13:29
then such a state can reduce the temptation of attack,
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そこから得られるものは無いので 自分が襲われる恐怖からの
13:32
because any kind of aggression will be punished,
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先制攻撃を抑止するのです
13:35
leaving its profitability as zero. That would remove the temptation
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抑止力では 本気だと示すために一触即発で復讐する必要があったのが
13:40
to invade preemptively, out of fear of them attacking you first.
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不要となり こうして平和へと至るのです
13:44
It removes the need for a hair trigger for retaliation
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先ほどお見せ出来なかった 殺人件数の割合を
13:48
to make your deterrent threat credible. And therefore, it would lead
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グラフにしたアイズナーは
13:51
to a state of peace. Eisner -- the man who plotted the homicide rates
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ヨーロッパで殺人が減少した時期は
13:57
that you failed to see in the earlier slide --
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中央集権国家の勃興と期を同じくすると指摘しています
14:00
argued that the timing of the decline of homicide in Europe
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リヴァイアサン理論のちょっとした裏付けです
14:04
coincided with the rise of centralized states.
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今日 無政府状態の地域で暴力が吹き荒れることも
14:08
So that's a bit of a support for the leviathan theory.
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理論を裏付けます 破たん国家や崩壊した帝国
14:11
Also supporting it is the fact that we today see eruptions of violence
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辺境地帯 マフィアやストリートギャング等です
14:15
in zones of anarchy, in failed states, collapsed empires,
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二つ目の説明は 人生は取るに足らないものと
14:19
frontier regions, mafias, street gangs and so on.
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見られていた時代と場所が多かったことです
14:25
The second explanation is that in many times and places,
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苦しみや若死にが普通であった昔
14:28
there is a widespread sentiment that life is cheap.
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他人に危害を加えることに抵抗は感じませんでした
14:32
In earlier times, when suffering and early death were common
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テクノロジーや経済効率が人生をより長く楽しくさせるにつれて
14:36
in one's own life, one has fewer compunctions about inflicting them
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人間は一般的に人生への価値を高めるようになります
14:40
on others. And as technology and economic efficiency make life
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これは政治学者のジェームズ ペインの議論です
14:44
longer and more pleasant, one puts a higher value on life in general.
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三つ目の説明は“非ゼロ和” の概念を連想させます
14:48
This was an argument from the political scientist James Payne.
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ジャーナリストであるロバート ライトは
14:52
A third explanation invokes the concept of a nonzero-sum game,
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ある種の状況下で 非暴力を含む協力は
14:56
and was worked out in the book "Nonzero" by the journalist
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双方に利益があると指摘しています
15:00
Robert Wright. Wright points out that in certain circumstances,
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過剰な物資の貿易を行い 両者が争いをしないこと 又は
15:04
cooperation or non-violence can benefit both parties
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戦時編制を解き いわゆる平和の配当を分配することで
15:07
in an interaction, such as gains in trade when two parties trade
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いかなる時でも 戦う必要がなくなることに
15:13
their surpluses and both come out ahead, or when two parties
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つながると言っています
15:17
lay down their arms and split the so-called peace dividend
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ライトは 人が関わる
15:20
that results in them not having to fight the whole time.
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ポジティブサムゲームの件数が増えたと言います
15:24
Wright argues that technology has increased the number
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テクノロジーが 物資やサービスやアイデアの交換を
15:26
of positive-sum games that humans tend to be embroiled in,
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より遠方と より大人数で行えるようにしたからです
15:31
by allowing the trade of goods, services and ideas
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その結果 死者よりも生きている他者の価値が高まり
15:34
over longer distances and among larger groups of people.
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自己中心的な理由での暴力は減るのです ライトに言わせると
15:38
The result is that other people become more valuable alive than dead,
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“日本への爆弾投下はいけない
15:41
and violence declines for selfish reasons. As Wright put it,
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彼らは私のミニバンを作ってくれたのだ”
15:47
"Among the many reasons that I think that we should not bomb
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（笑）
15:49
the Japanese is that they built my mini-van."
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四つ目の説明は哲学者であるピーター シンガーが書いた
15:52
(Laughter)
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本のタイトルに示されています
15:54
The fourth explanation is captured in the title of a book
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彼は 進化によって人間は共感できるようになったと論じています
15:58
called "The Expanding Circle," by the philosopher Peter Singer,
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他人の利害を自らのものとして考える力です
16:02
who argues that evolution bequeathed humans with a sense
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残念ながら 我々がそうするのは基本的に
16:05
of empathy, an ability to treat other peoples' interests
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非常に限られた仲間や身内だけです
16:10
as comparable to one's own. Unfortunately, by default
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それ以外の人は人間以下の扱いを受け
16:14
we apply it only to a very narrow circle of friends and family.
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当然のことのように食い物にされるのです しかし時間が経つうちに
16:18
People outside that circle are treated as sub-human,
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その範囲は広がり 歴史上の記録には
16:21
and can be exploited with impunity. But, over history,
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村から一族へ 部族へ
16:25
the circle has expanded. One can see, in historical record,
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国家へ 他の人種へ 男女へと広がり
16:29
it expanding from the village, to the clan, to the tribe,
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シンガー自身の議論では 感覚をもつ他の種にも
16:33
to the nation, to other races, to both sexes,
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広げるべきものだとしています
16:36
and, in Singer's own arguments, something that we should extend
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そこで この広がりの原動力は何かという問いが生じます
16:38
to other sentient species. The question is,
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可能性はたくさんあります
16:43
if this has happened, what has powered that expansion?
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ロバート ライトが論じる相互依存の輪の増加や黄金律などです
16:46
And there are a number of possibilities, such as increasing circles
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つまり他者のことを考え影響しあうほどに
16:49
of reciprocity in the sense that Robert Wright argues for.
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相手に耳を傾けてほしい場合には
16:54
The logic of the golden rule -- the more you think about and interact
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自分の利益を優先するのは
16:58
with other people, the more you realize that it is untenable
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良くないことがわかります
17:02
to privilege your interests over theirs,
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自己中心的な態度は不適切です
17:06
at least not if you want them to listen to you. You can't say
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自分が今いる場所が
17:09
that my interests are special compared to yours,
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宇宙の中で特別な場所だと言えないのと
17:12
anymore than you can say that the particular spot
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同じことです
17:15
that I'm standing on is a unique part of the universe
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世界主義も理由かもしれません
17:18
because I happen to be standing on it that very minute.
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歴史 報道 記憶 リアルな小説 旅行記 識字―
17:21
It may also be powered by cosmopolitanism, by histories,
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こうして かつて人間以下に見ていた他人の姿に
17:25
and journalism, and memoirs, and realistic fiction, and travel,
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自分の姿を重ね合わせることを可能にして
17:29
and literacy, which allows you to project yourself into the lives
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自分の人生の立場が偶然の結果と気づかせます
17:33
of other people that formerly you may have treated as sub-human,
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誰にでも起こり得るということです
17:37
and also to realize the accidental contingency of your own station
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原因は何にせよ 暴力の減少には
17:41
in life, the sense that "there but for fortune go I."
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深い意味があるため “なぜ戦争をするのか” と問わずに
17:46
Whatever its causes, the decline of violence, I think,
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“なぜ平和があるのか” と問うべきです
17:49
has profound implications. It should force us to ask not just, why
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“我々の過ち” だけではなく “我々の正しい行い”も問うべきです
17:53
is there war? But also, why is there peace? Not just,
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そこを追究するのは
17:58
what are we doing wrong? But also, what have we been doing right?
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価値あることだと思います
18:02
Because we have been doing something right,
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どうもありがとう
18:04
and it sure would be good to find out what it is.
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（拍手）
18:06
Thank you very much.
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素晴らしい内容でした ピーターシンガーが書いた内容ですが
18:07
(Applause).
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あの広がりとは テクノロジーや
18:18
Chris Anderson: I loved that talk. I think a lot of people here in the room would say
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目に見える他者の増加が 引き起こしたと
18:22
that that expansion of -- that you were talking about,
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感じる人も多いと思います そして それゆえに世界が
18:25
that Peter Singer talks about, is also driven by, just by technology,
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小さくなっているという感覚 これも真実なのでしょうか？
18:28
by greater visibility of the other, and the sense that the world
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はい どちらもライト氏の理論にあてはまります
18:32
is therefore getting smaller. I mean, is that also a grain of truth?
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ずっと大きな輪の中での協力はメリットが大きいのです
18:36
Steven Pinker: Very much. It would fit both in Wright's theory,
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また 他人の立場に思いを馳せることの
18:40
that it allows us to enjoy the benefits of cooperation
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手助けにもなっています
18:44
over larger and larger circles. But also, I think it helps us
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中世の恐ろしい拷問の話を読んだら
18:49
imagine what it's like to be someone else. I think when you read
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なぜ そんなことが出来たのか
18:52
these horrific tortures that were common in the Middle Ages, you think,
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犠牲者をかわいそうだと思わなかったのかと
18:55
how could they possibly have done it,
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思うでしょうが 彼らにとっては
18:57
how could they have not have empathized with the person
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自分と似た存在だとは思いようもない―
19:00
that they're disemboweling? But clearly,
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ただのよそ者に過ぎなかったのです
19:03
as far as they're concerned, this is just an alien being
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他人と立場を入れ替える想像を
19:06
that does not have feelings akin to their own. Anything, I think,
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容易にするものは何でも 他人への配慮を
19:09
that makes it easier to imagine trading places
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高めるのです
19:12
with someone else means that it increases your moral consideration
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大切なことなので 近いうちに報道機関にも聴いてもらいたいですね
19:15
to that other person.
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どうもありがとう
19:16
CA: Well, Steve, I would love every news media owner to hear that talk
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どういたしまして
19:20
at some point in the next year. I think it's really important. Thank you so much.
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19:22
SP: My pleasure.
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ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Steven Pinker - PsychologistSteven Pinker is a professor of cognitive science (the study of the human mind) who writes about language, mind and human nature.
Why you should listen
Steven Pinker grew up in the English-speaking community of Montreal but has spent his adult life bouncing back and forth between Harvard and MIT. He is interested in all aspects of human nature: how we see, hear, think, speak, remember, feel and interact.
To be specific: he developed the first comprehensive theory of language acquisition in children, used verb meaning as a window into cognition, probed the limits of neural networks and showed how the interaction between memory and computation shapes language. He has used evolution to illuminate innuendo, emotional expression and social coordination. He has documented historical declines in violence and explained them in terms of the ways that the violent and peaceable components of human nature interact in different eras. He has written books on the language instinct, how the mind works, the stuff of thought and the doctrine of the blank slate, together with a guide to stylish writing that is rooted in psychology.
In his latest book, Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress, he writes about progress -- why people are healthier, richer, safer, happier and better educated than ever. His other books include The Language Instinct, How the Mind Works, The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature, The Stuff of Thought, and The Better Angels of Our Nature.
Steven Pinker | Speaker | TED.com