TEDGlobal 2011
Mark Pagel: How language transformed humanity
馬克．佩葛：語言如何改變人類
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生物學家馬克．佩葛在演說中分享了一個有關人類發展複雜語言系統的有趣理論。他認為語言是一種“社會科技“，藉此促使早期人類各部落取得了一項強而有力的新工具：合作。
Mark Pagel - Evolutionary biologist
Using biological evolution as a template, Mark Pagel wonders how languages evolve. Full bio
Using biological evolution as a template, Mark Pagel wonders how languages evolve. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:15
Each of you possesses
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在座的每一位都擁有
00:17
the most powerful, dangerous and subversive trait
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一項物競天擇過程所衍生出的產物中，
00:20
that natural selection has ever devised.
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最強力，危險，且具有顛覆性的特徵。
00:23
It's a piece of neural audio technology
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這是一項用來跟他人進行心意溝通
00:26
for rewiring other people's minds.
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的神經性音頻技術。
00:28
I'm talking about your language, of course,
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我所說的正是語言，
00:31
because it allows you to implant a thought from your mind
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透過語言你可以將自己的想法
00:34
directly into someone else's mind,
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直接灌輸進他人的腦袋裡，
00:37
and they can attempt to do the same to you,
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而別人也能夠反過來這樣做，
00:39
without either of you having to perform surgery.
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這個過程並不需要透過手術才能達成。
00:42
Instead, when you speak,
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換個角度，當你開口說話時，
00:44
you're actually using a form of telemetry
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你其實是在使用一種
00:46
not so different
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跟電視遙控器幾乎沒什麼兩樣的
00:48
from the remote control device for your television.
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遙測技術。
00:50
It's just that, whereas that device
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差別只在於遙控器
00:52
relies on pulses of infrared light,
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是透過紅外線脈衝，
00:54
your language relies on pulses,
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而語言則是透過
00:57
discrete pulses, of sound.
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聲音的離散脈衝進行傳導。
00:59
And just as you use the remote control device
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就像你使用遙控器
01:02
to alter the internal settings of your television
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去改變電視機的內部設定
01:04
to suit your mood,
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以迎合自己當下的心情一樣，
01:06
you use your language
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你也透過語言
01:08
to alter the settings inside someone else's brain
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去改變別人腦袋裡的設定
01:10
to suit your interests.
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來配合自己的喜好。
01:12
Languages are genes talking,
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語言其實是基因開口
01:14
getting things that they want.
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獲得他們所需事物的表現。
01:16
And just imagine the sense of wonder in a baby
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讓我們設想一下發生在小嬰兒身上的神奇場面，
01:19
when it first discovers that, merely by uttering a sound,
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當小嬰兒首次發現僅僅是發出聲音
01:22
it can get objects to move across a room
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就能使物體橫越房間朝他而來，
01:24
as if by magic,
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甚至餵飽他的肚子，
01:26
and maybe even into its mouth.
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簡直就像變魔術一樣。
01:29
Now language's subversive power
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語言的顛覆性力量
01:31
has been recognized throughout the ages
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也已經在實施言論審查的年代，
01:33
in censorship, in books you can't read,
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透過不得閱讀的禁書、
01:35
phrases you can't use
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禁止使用的辭彙
01:37
and words you can't say.
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和文字而得到印證。
01:39
In fact, the Tower of Babel story in the Bible
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事實上，聖經中的巴別塔故事
01:42
is a fable and warning
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正是一則有關語言的力量
01:44
about the power of language.
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的預言和告誡。
01:46
According to that story, early humans developed the conceit
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根據故事的描述，遠古的人類藉由使用語言
01:49
that, by using their language to work together,
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得以彼此溝通，進而起了驕慢之心，
01:51
they could build a tower
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認為他們能夠共同合作建造一座
01:53
that would take them all the way to heaven.
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直上天庭的高塔。
01:55
Now God, angered at this attempt to usurp his power,
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上帝對人類這個形同篡權奪位的行為怒不可遏，
01:58
destroyed the tower,
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於是摧毀了高塔，
02:01
and then to ensure
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並且為了確保
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that it would never be rebuilt,
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人類不再重建通天塔，
02:05
he scattered the people by giving them different languages --
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上帝透過變亂語言來混淆人類 --
02:08
confused them by giving them different languages.
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從而使他們分散各地。
02:11
And this leads to the wonderful irony
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而這也導致了一個奇妙且諷刺的狀況，
02:13
that our languages exist to prevent us from communicating.
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正是我們的語言阻礙了彼此之間的溝通。
02:16
Even today,
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即使在今天，
02:18
we know that there are words we cannot use,
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仍然有我們不得使用的字眼，
02:20
phrases we cannot say,
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不能使用的辭彙，
02:22
because if we do so,
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因為一旦這樣做，
02:24
we might be accosted, jailed,
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我們就可能面臨牢獄之災，
02:27
or even killed.
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甚至是殺身之禍。
02:29
And all of this from a puff of air
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而這一切不過都是
02:31
emanating from our mouths.
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起於口舌吞吐之間的一口氣罷了。
02:33
Now all this fuss about a single one of our traits
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剛剛這一長串針對語言能力的長篇大論
02:36
tells us there's something worth explaining.
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正說明了有些值得闡釋的事情。
02:38
And that is how and why
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也就是語言這個不尋常的特徵
02:40
did this remarkable trait evolve,
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是基於什麼成因，又是以什麼方式發展的？
02:42
and why did it evolve
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並且，為何
02:44
only in our species?
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只在人類的世界衍繹？
02:46
Now it's a little bit of a surprise
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比較出人意表的是，
02:48
that to get an answer to that question,
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為了解答這個問題，
02:50
we have to go to tool use
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我們得先研究一下
02:52
in the chimpanzees.
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黑猩猩使用工具的情形。
02:54
Now these chimpanzees are using tools,
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這些黑猩猩正在使用工具，
02:56
and we take that as a sign of their intelligence.
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這被認為是牠們智力的一種表現。
02:59
But if they really were intelligent,
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但如果黑猩猩真的很聰明的話，
03:01
why would they use a stick to extract termites from the ground
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為什麼牠們會用棍子去挖土裡的白蟻，
03:04
rather than a shovel?
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卻不用鏟子呢？
03:06
And if they really were intelligent,
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如果牠們真的那麼聰明，
03:09
why would they crack open nuts with a rock?
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又為什麼要費事自己拿石頭砸開堅果？
03:11
Why wouldn't they just go to a shop and buy a bag of nuts
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為什麼不直接到商店裡
03:14
that somebody else had already cracked open for them?
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去買一袋別人已經開好的堅果呢？
03:17
Why not? I mean, that's what we do.
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為什麼不？我的意思是，我們不就是這樣做的嗎？
03:19
Now the reason the chimpanzees don't do that
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黑猩猩不會這樣做的理由
03:21
is that they lack what psychologists and anthropologists call
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是因為牠們缺乏心理學家和人類學家稱之為
03:24
social learning.
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社會學習的能力。
03:26
They seem to lack the ability
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牠們似乎缺乏
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to learn from others
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透過複製或摹仿，
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by copying or imitating
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甚至於單純觀察他人
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or simply watching.
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而從中學習的能力。
03:34
As a result,
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於是乎，
03:36
they can't improve on others' ideas
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牠們也就無法透過改良他人的創意，
03:38
or learn from others' mistakes --
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或以他人的錯誤爲借鏡 --
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benefit from others' wisdom.
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從而汲取他人的智慧。
03:42
And so they just do the same thing
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因此牠們只能一再而再的
03:44
over and over and over again.
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重複做相同的事情。
03:46
In fact, we could go away for a million years and come back
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事實上，如果我們前進到一百萬年後，再倒溯回來，
03:50
and these chimpanzees would be doing the same thing
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那些黑猩猩肯定還在做著相同的事情，
03:53
with the same sticks for the termites
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用同樣的棍子挖白蟻，
03:55
and the same rocks to crack open the nuts.
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用同樣的石塊砸開堅果。
03:58
Now this may sound arrogant, or even full of hubris.
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這樣說聽起來或者很傲慢，甚至於很狂妄。
04:01
How do we know this?
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我們怎麼會知道這些呢？
04:03
Because this is exactly what our ancestors, the Homo erectus, did.
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因為我們的老祖宗，直立人，就是這樣做的。
04:06
These upright apes
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距今約兩百萬年前，
04:08
evolved on the African savanna
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這些直立猿人
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about two million years ago,
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在非洲的熱帶草原上演化，
04:12
and they made these splendid hand axes
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他們製作了這些能夠完美符合掌型
04:14
that fit wonderfully into your hands.
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的精巧手斧。
04:16
But if we look at the fossil record,
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但假使我們查看化石紀錄的話，
04:18
we see that they made the same hand axe
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就會發現他們是一再而再
04:21
over and over and over again
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不斷重複的製作同樣的手斧
04:23
for one million years.
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時間長達一百萬年。
04:25
You can follow it through the fossil record.
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你可以從追溯化石紀錄發現這一點。
04:27
Now if we make some guesses about how long Homo erectus lived,
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如果我們對於直立人存在的時間，
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what their generation time was,
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和他們的世代做一些假設的話，
04:31
that's about 40,000 generations
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從對經過約莫40,000代的
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of parents to offspring, and other individuals watching,
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父子傳承，和其他個體的觀察來看，
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in which that hand axe didn't change.
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手斧的製作全然未有改變。
04:39
It's not even clear
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我們甚至不太清楚，
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that our very close genetic relatives, the Neanderthals,
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我們的近親，尼安德塔人，
04:43
had social learning.
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是否具備了社會學習的能力。
04:45
Sure enough, their tools were more complicated
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當然，他們的工具和直立人所使用的相較之下
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than those of Homo erectus,
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是複雜得多了，
04:50
but they too showed very little change
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只不過，這些住在歐亞大陸的人類，
04:52
over the 300,000 years or so
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尼安德塔人，
04:55
that those species, the Neanderthals,
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在超過300,000年的時間裡，
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lived in Eurasia.
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也只呈現了極少的變化。
04:59
Okay, so what this tells us
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這跟諺語
05:01
is that, contrary to the old adage,
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“有樣學樣“告訴我們的道理
05:04
"monkey see, monkey do,"
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正好完全相反。
05:07
the surprise really is
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令人驚訝的是
05:09
that all of the other animals
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其它所有動物
05:11
really cannot do that -- at least not very much.
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都無法做到有樣學樣 -- 至少程度上極為有限。
05:14
And even this picture
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即使這張照片
05:16
has the suspicious taint of being rigged about it --
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都不免有人為操控之嫌 --
05:19
something from a Barnum & Bailey circus.
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像是出自巴納姆貝利馬戲團之手似的。
05:21
But by comparison,
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但在相較之下，
05:23
we can learn.
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人類具備了學習能力。
05:25
We can learn by watching other people
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我們能透過觀察他人，
05:28
and copying or imitating
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複製或摹仿他人的行為
05:30
what they can do.
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而從中學習。
05:32
We can then choose, from among a range of options,
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然後我們就能在許多不同選項裡
05:35
the best one.
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挑選出最好的一個。
05:37
We can benefit from others' ideas.
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我們能夠從別人的想法中受益。
05:39
We can build on their wisdom.
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以別人的智慧爲基礎加以發展。
05:41
And as a result, our ideas do accumulate,
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而最終，我們的創意得以累積，
05:44
and our technology progresses.
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科技也因而進步。
05:48
And this cumulative cultural adaptation,
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這種人類學家稱之爲
05:53
as anthropologists call
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累積文化適性的
05:55
this accumulation of ideas,
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想法累積，
05:57
is responsible for everything around you
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是與你繁忙的群體日常生活裡
05:59
in your bustling and teeming everyday lives.
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各種事物都習習相關的。
06:01
I mean the world has changed out of all proportion
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跟1,000或2,000年前相比
06:03
to what we would recognize
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這個世界
06:05
even 1,000 or 2,000 years ago.
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已經發生徹頭徹尾的改變。
06:08
And all of this because of cumulative cultural adaptation.
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這一切都是拜累積文化適性所賜。
06:11
The chairs you're sitting in, the lights in this auditorium,
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各位所坐的椅子，會場裡的燈光，
06:13
my microphone, the iPads and iPods that you carry around with you --
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我手上的麥克風，各位隨身攜帶的 iPad 和 iPod
06:16
all are a result
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全都是
06:18
of cumulative cultural adaptation.
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累積文化適性的產物。
06:20
Now to many commentators,
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對許多評論家而言，
06:24
cumulative cultural adaptation, or social learning,
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累積文化適性，或者社會學習能力，
06:27
is job done, end of story.
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都已經算發展完成，劃上句點。
06:30
Our species can make stuff,
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人類有生產製造的能力，
06:33
therefore we prospered in a way that no other species has.
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因此我們比其它物種發展得更加繁榮昌盛。
06:36
In fact, we can even make the "stuff of life" --
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事實上，我們甚至能製造“生活用品“ --
06:39
as I just said, all the stuff around us.
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也就是我方才所說的，所有我們周遭的事物。
06:41
But in fact, it turns out
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然而實際上，
06:43
that some time around 200,000 years ago,
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在距今約莫200,000萬年前，
06:46
when our species first arose
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當現代人類出現
06:48
and acquired social learning,
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並取得社會學習能力時，
06:50
that this was really the beginning of our story,
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那才是人類故事的開端，
06:52
not the end of our story.
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而非故事的終結。
06:54
Because our acquisition of social learning
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由於社會學習能力的獲得
06:57
would create a social and evolutionary dilemma,
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讓社會與進化陷入了進退維谷的兩難，
07:00
the resolution of which, it's fair to say,
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解決之道，持平而言，
07:03
would determine not only the future course of our psychology,
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不僅勢將決定人類未來心理層面的課題，
07:07
but the future course of the entire world.
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更會左右整個世界未來的走向。
07:09
And most importantly for this,
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最重要的是，
07:12
it'll tell us why we have language.
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它將會揭示：為什麼人類會有語言。
07:15
And the reason that dilemma arose
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兩難局面產生的理由
07:17
is, it turns out, that social learning is visual theft.
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是因為社會學習實際上是一種視覺竊取。
07:20
If I can learn by watching you,
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如果我可以藉著觀察你來學習，
07:23
I can steal your best ideas,
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我就能偷取你的創意，
07:25
and I can benefit from your efforts,
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而且無須像你一樣付出時間和精力
07:28
without having to put in the time and energy that you did
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投注在改善創意之上，
07:30
into developing them.
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就能輕易坐享其成。
07:32
If I can watch which lure you use to catch a fish,
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如果我可以觀察你使用什麼魚餌釣魚，
07:35
or I can watch how you flake your hand axe
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或如何削薄手斧
07:37
to make it better,
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讓它更加順手，
07:39
or if I follow you secretly to your mushroom patch,
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或者，偷偷跟蹤你到你的蘑菇採集點，
07:42
I can benefit from your knowledge and wisdom and skills,
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我就能夠從你的知識、智慧和技巧受惠，
07:45
and maybe even catch that fish
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甚至可能比你更早一步
07:47
before you do.
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抓到魚。
07:49
Social learning really is visual theft.
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社會學習實際上就是一種視覺竊取。
07:52
And in any species that acquired it,
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任何具備這種能力的物種，
07:54
it would behoove you
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最終都會
07:56
to hide your best ideas,
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隱藏起自己最好的創意，
07:58
lest somebody steal them from you.
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免得被別人給偷走了。
08:02
And so some time around 200,000 years ago,
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就在大約200,000年前，
08:05
our species confronted this crisis.
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人類面臨了這個危機。
08:08
And we really had only two options
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對於視覺竊取
08:11
for dealing with the conflicts
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所帶來的衝突狀況
08:13
that visual theft would bring.
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我們僅有兩個選擇。
08:15
One of those options
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一個是
08:17
was that we could have retreated
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將自己退回
08:20
into small family groups.
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小家庭單位的族群。
08:22
Because then the benefits of our ideas and knowledge
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如此一來，因為我們的創意和知識所生的利益
08:25
would flow just to our relatives.
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就可以留在自己的親族之間。
08:27
Had we chosen this option,
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如果在大約200,000年前
08:29
sometime around 200,000 years ago,
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我們選擇的是這個做法，
08:32
we would probably still be living like the Neanderthals were
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很可能在40,000年前人類首度進入歐洲的時候
08:35
when we first entered Europe 40,000 years ago.
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我們都還維持著跟尼安德塔人一樣的生活方式。
08:38
And this is because in small groups
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因為在小團體裡
08:40
there are fewer ideas, there are fewer innovations.
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能產生的發想有限，創新也有限。
08:43
And small groups are more prone to accidents and bad luck.
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但卻更易於遭遇事故和厄運。
08:46
So if we'd chosen that path,
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因此如果我們當初選擇的是這條路，
08:48
our evolutionary path would have led into the forest --
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我們的進化之道就會通向密林 --
08:51
and been a short one indeed.
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並且十分短命。
08:53
The other option we could choose
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另一個選擇則是
08:55
was to develop the systems of communication
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發展出得以相互交流創意
08:58
that would allow us to share ideas
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和彼此相互合作的
09:00
and to cooperate amongst others.
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溝通系統。
09:03
Choosing this option would mean
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選擇這個方式意味著
09:05
that a vastly greater fund of accumulated knowledge and wisdom
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豐厚的累積知識和智慧資產
09:08
would become available to any one individual
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將對所有人開放。
09:11
than would ever arise from within an individual family
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而不僅是拘限於個別家族之間的流傳，
09:14
or an individual person on their own.
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或一己的私藏。
09:18
Well, we chose the second option,
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我們當初選擇了第二個方法，
09:21
and language is the result.
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語言即是此一抉擇下的產物。
09:24
Language evolved to solve the crisis
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語言的進化解決了
09:26
of visual theft.
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視覺竊取所產生的危機。
09:28
Language is a piece of social technology
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語言是一種用來
09:31
for enhancing the benefits of cooperation --
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加強合作的利益的社會科技 --
09:34
for reaching agreements, for striking deals
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用來達成協議，完成交易，
09:37
and for coordinating our activities.
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和協調各種活動的進行。
09:41
And you can see that, in a developing society
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各位可以想見，對一個尚位於發展階段，
09:43
that was beginning to acquire language,
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剛開始學習語言的國家而言，
09:45
not having language
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缺乏對於語言的掌握
09:47
would be a like a bird without wings.
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處境就如同沒有翅膀的鳥一樣。
09:49
Just as wings open up this sphere of air
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就像鳥類，
09:52
for birds to exploit,
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展開翅膀劃破空氣翱翔一般。
09:54
language opened up the sphere of cooperation
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人類也藉由語言
09:56
for humans to exploit.
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開啟彼此合作之門。
09:58
And we take this utterly for granted,
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而我們將此視為理所當然，
10:00
because we're a species that is so at home with language,
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因為我們對於語言的掌握已臻嫻熟。
10:03
but you have to realize
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但我們應當理解到
10:05
that even the simplest acts of exchange that we engage in
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即使是我們最簡單的交換行為
10:08
are utterly dependent upon language.
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也完全是倚靠語言來完成的。
10:11
And to see why, consider two scenarios
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請想像兩個
10:13
from early in our evolution.
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進化早期的場景。
10:15
Let's imagine that you are really good
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想像你非常
10:17
at making arrowheads,
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擅於製作箭頭，
10:19
but you're hopeless at making the wooden shafts
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但卻對於製作帶著羽毛的箭柄
10:22
with the flight feathers attached.
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完全無計可施。
10:25
Two other people you know are very good at making the wooden shafts,
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另外兩個你認識的人則是非常擅於製作箭柄，
10:28
but they're hopeless at making the arrowheads.
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卻完全不會製作箭頭。
10:31
So what you do is --
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於是 --
10:33
one of those people has not really acquired language yet.
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其中一位是尚未掌握語言能力的。
10:36
And let's pretend the other one is good at language skills.
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然後我們假設另一位則具備很好的語言能力。
10:38
So what you do one day is you take a pile of arrowheads,
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於是有一天你帶著一堆箭頭
10:41
and you walk up to the one that can't speak very well,
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去找那位還不太會說話的人，
10:43
and you put the arrowheads down in front of him,
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然後把那堆箭頭放在他面前，
10:45
hoping that he'll get the idea that you want to trade your arrowheads
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期待他能了解你想用箭頭跟他交換
10:48
for finished arrows.
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箭柄的想法。
10:50
But he looks at the pile of arrowheads, thinks they're a gift,
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然而他看著那堆箭頭，認為那是你送他的禮物，
10:52
picks them up, smiles and walks off.
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就拿起箭頭，笑一笑走開了。
10:55
Now you pursue this guy, gesticulating.
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你追上前去，對他比手畫腳。
10:57
A scuffle ensues and you get stabbed
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拉拉扯扯之間，
10:59
with one of your own arrowheads.
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你就被自己做的箭頭給戳傷了。
11:02
Okay, now replay this scene now, and you're approaching the one who has language.
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接著再我們重複相同的場景，這回你換成去找那個會說話的人。
11:05
You put down your arrowheads and say,
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你把箭頭放下之後對他說：
11:07
"I'd like to trade these arrowheads for finished arrows. I'll split you 50/50."
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“我想用這些箭頭換你做好的箭柄。我們對半分吧。“
11:10
The other one says, "Fine. Looks good to me.
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對方會說：“好，聽起來還不賴。
11:12
We'll do that."
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就這麼辦！“
11:15
Now the job is done.
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交易完成了。
11:18
Once we have language,
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一旦擁有語言，
11:20
we can put our ideas together and cooperate
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我們就可以交換想法並合作
11:22
to have a prosperity
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創造出
11:24
that we couldn't have before we acquired it.
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沒有語言之前無法達成的繁榮。
11:27
And this is why our species
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這也是為什麼人類
11:29
has prospered around the world
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得以在世界各地方繁衍發展，
11:31
while the rest of the animals
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而其它的動物
11:33
sit behind bars in zoos, languishing.
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卻只能被關在動物園的鐵欄裡，逐漸凋零。
11:36
That's why we build space shuttles and cathedrals
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這也是為什麼我們能建造太空梭和大教堂，
11:39
while the rest of the world sticks sticks into the ground
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而其它動物只會用棍子挖地
11:41
to extract termites.
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找白蟻。
11:43
All right, if this view of language
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好了，如果這個關於語言
11:46
and its value
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和它具備解決
11:48
in solving the crisis of visual theft is true,
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視覺竊取危機的價值的看法屬實，
11:51
any species that acquires it
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則任何取得語言能力的物種
11:53
should show an explosion of creativity and prosperity.
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都會展現出爆炸性的創造力和繁榮發展。
11:56
And this is exactly what the archeological record shows.
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這正是考古紀錄揭露的事實。
11:59
If you look at our ancestors,
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如果研究一下我們的祖先，
12:01
the Neanderthals and the Homo erectus, our immediate ancestors,
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尼安德塔人和直立人，我們的直系祖先，
12:04
they're confined to small regions of the world.
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他們的活動範圍僅限於世界的某個小區域裡。
12:07
But when our species arose
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但當人類
12:09
about 200,000 years ago,
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在約莫200,000年前出現後，
12:11
sometime after that we quickly walked out of Africa
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很快的我們就走出非洲
12:14
and spread around the entire world,
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並散佈在世界各地，
12:17
occupying nearly every habitat on Earth.
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幾乎佔據了地球上所有的棲息地。
12:20
Now whereas other species are confined
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如今當其它物種還受限於
12:23
to places that their genes adapt them to,
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牠們的基因所能適應的生存區域時，
12:26
with social learning and language,
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藉著社會學習能力和語言的力量，
12:28
we could transform the environment
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我們已經能夠轉化環境
12:30
to suit our needs.
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來配合我們的需求。
12:32
And so we prospered in a way
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而我們也的確是以一種其它動物
12:34
that no other animal has.
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都難以望其項背的方式在繁衍發展。
12:36
Language really is
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語言的確是
12:39
the most potent trait that has ever evolved.
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演化過程中所發展出的最有力特徵。
12:42
It is the most valuable trait we have
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是我們擁有的最具價值的特徵，
12:45
for converting new lands and resources
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藉此我們將新的土地和資源轉化成
12:48
into more people and their genes
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更多的人和他們的基因，
12:51
that natural selection has ever devised.
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遠勝於物競天擇所創造出的機制。
12:53
Language really is
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語言的確是
12:55
the voice of our genes.
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我們基因的發聲。
12:57
Now having evolved language, though,
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但儘管語言進化如此發達，
12:59
we did something peculiar,
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我們做的也是件獨特，
13:01
even bizarre.
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甚至是奇怪的事情。
13:03
As we spread out around the world,
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當人類散佈到世界各地的同時，
13:05
we developed thousands of different languages.
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我們也發展出上千種不同的語言。
13:08
Currently, there are about seven or 8,000
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目前，地球上有大約七到八千種
13:10
different languages spoken on Earth.
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語言被人們所使用。
13:13
Now you might say, well, this is just natural.
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你可能會認為這是很自然的事情。
13:15
As we diverge, our languages are naturally going to diverge.
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當我們越分散，我們的語言自然也會變得越加分化。
13:18
But the real puzzle and irony
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但最是令人感到困惑和諷刺的是
13:20
is that the greatest density of different languages on Earth
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地球上密度最高的語言分化區域，
13:23
is found where people are most tightly packed together.
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正是人口聚集密度最高的區域。
13:27
If we go to the island of Papua New Guinea,
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在巴布亞新幾內亞，
13:29
we can find about 800 to 1,000
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那裡有共計約 800 到 1,000 種
13:32
distinct human languages,
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不同的人類語言，
13:34
different human languages,
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光是在那個小島
13:36
spoken on that island alone.
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就有各種不同的人類語言被使用著。
13:38
There are places on that island
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在那座島上
13:40
where you can encounter a new language
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每隔兩到三英哩，
13:42
every two or three miles.
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你就會碰上一種新語言。
13:44
Now, incredible as this sounds,
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讓人難以置信的是，
13:46
I once met a Papuan man, and I asked him if this could possibly be true.
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有回碰到一個巴布亞人，我問他這件事是不是真的。
13:49
And he said to me, "Oh no.
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他對我說：“噢，不。
13:51
They're far closer together than that."
335
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距離比這近多了。“
13:54
And it's true; there are places on that island
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這是真的；在這座島上
13:56
where you can encounter a new language in under a mile.
337
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有些地方相隔不到一英哩用的就是不同的語言了。
13:59
And this is also true of some remote oceanic islands.
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在某些偏遠的遠洋小島情形也是一樣。
14:03
And so it seems that we use our language,
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如此看來，我們不僅是使用語言
14:05
not just to cooperate,
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來進行合作，
14:07
but to draw rings around our cooperative groups
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也用在劃分團體周邊的界限
14:10
and to establish identities,
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和確立身分認同，
14:12
and perhaps to protect our knowledge and wisdom and skills
343
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也或許是用來保護知識、智慧和技術
14:15
from eavesdropping from outside.
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以避免隔牆有耳。
14:18
And we know this
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我們對此亦深有所知，
14:20
because when we study different language groups
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因為當我們研究不同的語言族群，
14:22
and associate them with their cultures,
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並將他們的文化加以連結時，
14:24
we see that different languages
348
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會發現不同的語言
14:26
slow the flow of ideas between groups.
349
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會減緩創意在族群間傳遞的速度。
14:29
They slow the flow of technologies.
350
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也減緩了科技傳播的速度。
14:32
And they even slow the flow of genes.
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甚至於減緩了基因交流的速度。
14:35
Now I can't speak for you,
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雖然我不能代表各位發言，
14:37
but it seems to be the case
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不過就這個例子來說，
14:39
that we don't have sex with people we can't talk to.
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我們是不會去跟無法溝通的人做愛的。
14:43
(Laughter)
355
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（笑聲）
14:45
Now we have to counter that, though,
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儘管現在我們或許要推翻這種說法了，
14:47
against the evidence we've heard
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根據證據顯示
14:49
that we might have had some rather distasteful genetic dalliances
358
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我們的老祖宗或許跟尼安德塔人和丹尼索瓦人
14:52
with the Neanderthals and the Denisovans.
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有過幾筆不甚美好的風流帳。
14:54
(Laughter)
360
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（笑聲）
14:56
Okay, this tendency we have,
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好了，人類的這種傾向，
14:58
this seemingly natural tendency we have,
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這種看似天生的傾向，
15:00
towards isolation, towards keeping to ourselves,
363
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趨向隔絕，趨向自閉，
15:03
crashes head first into our modern world.
364
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一頭撞進了我們處身的現代社會。
15:06
This remarkable image
365
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這張精彩的圖像
15:08
is not a map of the world.
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並不是世界地圖。
15:10
In fact, it's a map of Facebook friendship links.
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事實上，這是臉書友誼連結的分布標示圖。
15:14
And when you plot those friendship links
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當你把臉書朋友所在的位置
15:16
by their latitude and longitude,
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按照經緯度排列定位後，
15:18
it literally draws a map of the world.
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就會畫出一幅像這樣的世界地圖。
15:21
Our modern world is communicating
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現代社會正不斷的
15:23
with itself and with each other
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在與其自身和他人溝通交流，
15:25
more than it has
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頻繁的程度
15:27
at any time in its past.
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遠勝於歷史上任何時刻。
15:29
And that communication, that connectivity around the world,
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而這種溝通，這種全球性的連線，
15:32
that globalization
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這種全球化的舉動
15:34
now raises a burden.
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如今正凸顯出某個隱憂。
15:37
Because these different languages
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因為各種不同的語言
15:39
impose a barrier, as we've just seen,
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就如我們方才所看到的，
15:41
to the transfer of goods and ideas
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為貨物和創意的交流，
15:43
and technologies and wisdom.
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和科技與智慧的傳遞設下了一道屏障。
15:45
And they impose a barrier to cooperation.
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為合作設下了一道屏障。
15:48
And nowhere do we see that more clearly
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相較於其他地方，
15:51
than in the European Union,
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在歐盟這種狀況尤其明顯，
15:53
whose 27 member countries
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歐盟的27個會員國
15:56
speak 23 official languages.
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共有23種官方語言。
15:59
The European Union
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目前歐盟
16:01
is now spending over one billion euros annually
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每年用在23種會員國官方語言互譯的經費
16:05
translating among their 23 official languages.
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超過十億歐元之多。
16:08
That's something on the order
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亦即
16:10
of 1.45 billion U.S. dollars
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相當於十四億五千萬美元的費用
16:12
on translation costs alone.
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做為翻譯之用。
16:15
Now think of the absurdity of this situation.
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讓我們想像一下這個荒誕的場面。
16:17
If 27 individuals
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來自其它27個會員國
16:19
from those 27 member states
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的27位代表圍桌而坐，
16:21
sat around table, speaking their 23 languages,
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分別操23種不同的語言，
16:24
some very simple mathematics will tell you
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用簡單的數學算式就可以得出，
16:26
that you need an army of 253 translators
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需要一個多達253名翻譯成員的隊伍
16:30
to anticipate all the pairwise possibilities.
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才能確保各會員國皆能配對對話的可能性。
16:34
The European Union employs a permanent staff
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歐盟總共雇用了高達2,500名
16:37
of about 2,500 translators.
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正式編制的翻譯人員。
16:39
And in 2007 alone --
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而單是2007年一年 --
16:41
and I'm sure there are more recent figures --
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當然我相信有更新的數據可查 --
16:43
something on the order of 1.3 million pages
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光是翻譯成英文的文件數量
16:46
were translated into English alone.
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就多達了一百三十萬頁之多。
16:49
And so if language really is
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因此，如果語言真的是
16:52
the solution to the crisis of visual theft,
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視覺竊取危機的解決之道，
16:55
if language really is
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如果語言真的是
16:57
the conduit of our cooperation,
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我們彼此合作交流的導管，
16:59
the technology that our species derived
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是人類為了促進
17:02
to promote the free flow and exchange of ideas,
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思想在現代社會能自由交換流通
17:06
in our modern world,
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而衍繹出的科技的話，
17:08
we confront a question.
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我們也面臨了一個問題。
17:10
And that question is whether
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這個問題就是
17:12
in this modern, globalized world
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在這個現代，全球化的世界上
17:14
we can really afford to have all these different languages.
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我們是否真的負擔得起使用這麼多語種的代價。
17:17
To put it this way, nature knows no other circumstance
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換句話說，就自然法則而言
17:20
in which functionally equivalent traits coexist.
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功能相等的特徵是難以同時共存的。
17:25
One of them always drives the other extinct.
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其中一個往往會戰勝，迫使另一個走向消亡。
17:28
And we see this in the inexorable march
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我們在朝向勢不可擋的標準化進程上
17:30
towards standardization.
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可以清楚看到這一點。
17:32
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring things --
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在許許多多測量事物的方法上
17:35
weighing them and measuring their length --
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比方秤重和高度測量
17:37
but the metric system is winning.
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公制度量贏了。
17:39
There are lots and lots of ways of measuring time,
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在許許多多計算時間的方法上
17:42
but a really bizarre base 60 system
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古怪的60進位制
17:45
known as hours and minutes and seconds
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也就是以時分秒爲計算單位的方式
17:47
is nearly universal around the world.
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幾乎被全世界所普遍採用。
17:50
There are many, many ways
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壓製CD和DVD的方式
17:52
of imprinting CDs or DVDs,
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其實有很多很多種選擇，
17:54
but those are all being standardized as well.
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但現在也都被標準化了。
17:57
And you can probably think of many, many more
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各位還可以想出日常生活中
18:00
in your own everyday lives.
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更多更多類似的例子。
18:02
And so our modern world now
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所以說，現代社會
18:05
is confronting us with a dilemma.
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如今正面臨著一個兩難的問題。
18:07
And it's the dilemma
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這個中國人
18:09
that this Chinese man faces,
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目前也面臨著相同的難題，
18:11
who's language is spoken
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比起世界上其它任何語種，
18:13
by more people in the world
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中文擁有更多
18:15
than any other single language,
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的使用人口，
18:18
and yet he is sitting at his blackboard,
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然而這個中國人現在卻坐在黑板前，
18:22
converting Chinese phrases
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想辦法把中文辭彙
18:25
into English language phrases.
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适譯成英語辭彙。
18:27
And what this does is it raises the possibility to us
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這個行為讓我們得出一個可能性，
18:30
that in a world in which we want to promote
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亦即在這個我們極欲
18:32
cooperation and exchange,
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促進合作和交流的世界上，
18:34
and in a world that might be dependent more than ever before
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在這個歷史上
18:37
on cooperation
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為維持和加強繁榮富足
18:39
to maintain and enhance our levels of prosperity,
449
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而越來越依賴相互合作關係的時代，
18:42
his actions suggest to us
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這個中國人的行為提醒了我們，
18:44
it might be inevitable
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或許我們終將
18:46
that we have to confront the idea
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無法避免去正視這個議題，
18:48
that our destiny is to be one world with one language.
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亦即我們的命運會走向一個世界，一種語言。
18:51
Thank you.
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謝謝各位。
18:53
(Applause)
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（掌聲）
19:01
Matt Ridley: Mark, one question.
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麥特．瑞德里：馬克，我有個問題。
19:03
Svante found that the FOXP2 gene,
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帕波教授發現
19:06
which seems to be associated with language,
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尼安德塔人也跟我們一樣，
19:08
was also shared in the same form
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都擁有似乎跟語言存在著關連性的
19:10
in Neanderthals as us.
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FOXP2基因。
19:12
Do we have any idea
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假設尼安德塔人也有語言的話，
19:14
how we could have defeated Neanderthals
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您認為我們該用什麼方式
19:16
if they also had language?
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才能贏過尼安德塔人呢？
19:18
Mark Pagel: This is a very good question.
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馬克．佩葛：這個問題非常好。
19:20
So many of you will be familiar with the idea that there's this gene called FOXP2
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很多人未來勢必會對這個叫做FOXP2的基因更加熟悉，
19:23
that seems to be implicated in some ways
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它似乎在許多層面上都跟與語言相關的
19:26
in the fine motor control that's associated with language.
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精巧動作控制有所牽連。
19:29
The reason why I don't believe that tells us
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但我並不認為這個發現足以證明
19:31
that the Neanderthals had language
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尼安德塔人擁有語言，
19:33
is -- here's a simple analogy:
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原因是 -- 打個簡單的比方：
19:36
Ferraris are cars that have engines.
471
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法拉利是有引擎的汽車。
19:39
My car has an engine,
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我的車也有引擎，
19:41
but it's not a Ferrari.
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但不代表它就是法拉利。
19:43
Now the simple answer then
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簡單來說，
19:45
is that genes alone don't, all by themselves,
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光是基因本身
19:47
determine the outcome
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並不足以成為
19:49
of very complicated things like language.
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影響語言這種複雜事物產生的決定性要素。
19:51
What we know about this FOXP2 and Neanderthals
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我們對於 FOXP2 和尼安德塔人的了解
19:53
is that they may have had fine motor control of their mouths -- who knows.
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是他們的口部或許也具有精巧動作控制的能力 -- 但誰曉得呢？
19:57
But that doesn't tell us they necessarily had language.
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不過這也並不足以說明他們擁有語言。
19:59
MR: Thank you very much indeed.
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麥特．瑞德里：真的非常感謝您。
20:01
(Applause)
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（掌聲）
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Mark Pagel - Evolutionary biologistUsing biological evolution as a template, Mark Pagel wonders how languages evolve.
Why you should listen
Mark Pagel builds statistical models to examine the evolutionary processes imprinted in human behavior, from genomics to the emergence of complex systems -- to culture. His latest work examines the parallels between linguistic and biological evolution by applying methods of phylogenetics, or the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups, essentially viewing language as a culturally transmitted replicator with many of the same properties we find in genes. He’s looking for patterns in the rates of evolution of language elements, and hoping to find the social factors that influence trends of language evolution.
At the University of Reading, Pagel heads the Evolution Laboratory in the biology department, where he explores such questions as, "Why would humans evolve a system of communication that prevents them with communicating with other members of the same species?" He has used statistical methods to reconstruct features of dinosaur genomes, and to infer ancestral features of genes and proteins.
He says: "Just as we have highly conserved genes, we have highly conserved words. Language shows a truly remarkable fidelity."
Mark Pagel | Speaker | TED.com