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Marwa Al-Sabouni: How Syria's architecture laid the foundation for brutal war
Marwa Al-Sabouni: 敘利亞的建築如何成為了殘酷的戰爭的溫床
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是什麼導致了敘利亞的戰爭？壓迫、乾旱和宗教差異都起了關鍵的作用，但是Marwa Al-Sabouni給出了另一個原因：建築。從霍姆斯通過網路與我們對話，在過去的六年裡，她在霍姆斯看到了戰爭如何讓她的城市變得四分五裂，Al-Sabouni認為敘利亞的建築把一個曾經包容並且有多元文化的社會變成了一個由階級和宗教定義的單一身份的飛地。現在這個國家的未來取決於它選擇如何重建。
Marwa Al-Sabouni - Architect
Marwa Al-Sabouni suggests that architecture played a crucial role in the slow unraveling of Syrian cities' social fabric, preparing the way for once-friendly groups to become enemies instead of neighbors. Full bio
Marwa Al-Sabouni suggests that architecture played a crucial role in the slow unraveling of Syrian cities' social fabric, preparing the way for once-friendly groups to become enemies instead of neighbors. Full bio
Double-click the English transcript below to play the video.
00:19
Hi. My name is Marwa,
and I'm an architect.
and I'm an architect.
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嗨。我的名字叫Marwa，我是建築師。
00:23
I was born and raised in Homs,
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我出生在霍姆斯，並在那裡長大，
00:25
a city in the central
western part of Syria,
western part of Syria,
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一個在敘利亞中西部的城市，
00:27
and I've always lived here.
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我一直都住在這裡。
00:29
After six years of war,
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六年的戰爭過去，
00:31
Homs is now a half-destroyed city.
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霍姆斯有一半都被摧毀了。
00:34
My family and I were lucky;
our place is still standing.
our place is still standing.
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我和家人很幸遇；我們的住所仍然在那裡。
00:37
Although for two years,
we were like prisoners at home.
we were like prisoners at home.
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儘管有兩年的時間，我們像囚犯一樣住在家裡。
00:40
Outside there were demonstrations
and battles and bombings and snipers.
and battles and bombings and snipers.
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家外面有示威、鬥爭、炸彈和狙擊手。
00:46
My husband and I used to run
an architecture studio
an architecture studio
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我和丈夫以前經營一家建築工作室，
00:49
in the old town main square.
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在舊城鎮的主廣場那裡。
00:51
It's gone, as is most
of the old town itself.
of the old town itself.
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它已經不在了，正如
舊城鎮大部分的地方一樣。
舊城鎮大部分的地方一樣。
00:54
Half of the city's other neighborhoods
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城市裡其它社區有半數
00:56
are now rubble.
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現在都變成了瓦礫。
00:58
Since the ceasefire in late 2015,
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自從2015年末停戰以來，
01:00
large parts of Homs
have been more or less quiet.
have been more or less quiet.
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霍姆斯的大部分地區都比較安靜。
01:03
The economy is completely broken,
and people are still fighting.
and people are still fighting.
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經濟完全被破壞了，人們仍然在奮鬥。
01:07
The merchants who had stalls
in the old city market
in the old city market
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曾經在舊城市場有攤位的商人
01:09
now trade out of sheds on the streets.
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現在在街上的儲物棚外面做生意。
01:12
Under our apartment, there is a carpenter,
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在我們的公寓下面，有一個木匠舖、
01:14
sweetshops, a butcher, a printing house,
workshops, among many more.
workshops, among many more.
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糖果商店、一個肉舖、一間印刷廠、
工作坊，和許多其它的店鋪。
工作坊，和許多其它的店鋪。
01:20
I have started teaching part-time,
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我開始兼職教課，
01:22
and with my husband,
who juggles several jobs,
who juggles several jobs,
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和我的丈夫一起，他同時接了幾份工作，
01:24
we've opened a small bookshop.
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我們開了一間小書店。
01:26
Other people do all sorts
of jobs to get by.
of jobs to get by.
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其他人做各種各樣的工作來維持生計。
01:30
When I look at my destroyed city,
of course, I ask myself:
of course, I ask myself:
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當然，我看到被摧毀的家園時，我自問：
01:34
What has led to this senseless war?
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是什麼導致了這場毫無意義的戰爭？
01:36
Syria was largely a place of tolerance,
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敘利亞曾經是一個有包容性的地方，
01:39
historically accustomed to variety,
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從歷史的角度來說， 能夠適應多樣性，
01:41
accommodating a wide range
of beliefs, origins, customs,
of beliefs, origins, customs,
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融合很多的信仰、出身、習俗、
01:44
goods, food.
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商品，食物。
01:46
How did my country --
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我的國家 －
01:47
a country with communities
living harmoniously together
living harmoniously together
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許多社區可以融洽地生活在一起
01:50
and comfortable in discussing
their differences --
their differences --
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並且可以很自然地談論這些差異的國家 －
01:52
how did it degenerate into civil war,
violence, displacement
violence, displacement
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是如何淪為一個充滿了內戰、暴力、奪權，
01:56
and unprecedented sectarian hatred?
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和空前的宗教仇恨的地方？
02:00
There were many reasons
that had led to the war --
that had led to the war --
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導致戰爭的因素有很多：
02:03
social, political and economic.
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社會、政治，和經濟的。
02:05
They all have played their role.
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它們都起到了作用。
02:07
But I believe there is one key reason
that has been overlooked
that has been overlooked
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但是我認為有一個關鍵的原因被忽視了，
02:11
and which is important to analyze,
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可是對這個原因的分析很有必要，
02:13
because from it will largely depend
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因為它在很大程度上決定了
02:15
whether we can make sure
that this doesn't happen again.
that this doesn't happen again.
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我們能否確保這樣的戰爭不再發生。
02:19
And that reason is architecture.
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那個原因就是建築。
02:21
Architecture in my country
has played an important role
has played an important role
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建築在我的國家起到了重要的作用，
02:24
in creating, directing and amplifying
conflict between warring factions,
conflict between warring factions,
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在製造，集中和擴大派系衝突方面，
02:28
and this is probably true
for other countries as well.
for other countries as well.
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這可能在其他國家也是一樣的。
02:31
There is a sure correspondence
between the architecture of a place
between the architecture of a place
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有一種不容質疑的聯繫
存在於一個地方的建築
存在於一個地方的建築
02:35
and the character of the community
that has settled there.
that has settled there.
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和定居在那裡的社區的特徵之間。
02:38
Architecture plays a key role
in whether a community crumbles
in whether a community crumbles
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建築在社區是分裂或是團結方面
02:42
or comes together.
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扮演關鍵作用。
02:44
Syrian society has long lived
the coexistence
the coexistence
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敘利亞社會經歷了很久的
02:46
of different traditions and backgrounds.
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不同傳統和背景的共存。
02:48
Syrians have experienced
the prosperity of open trade
the prosperity of open trade
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敘利亞人體驗了自由貿易
02:51
and sustainable communities.
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和永續發展社區帶來的繁榮。
02:53
They have enjoyed the true meaning
of belonging to a place,
of belonging to a place,
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他們享受了一個地方
歸屬感的真正意義，
歸屬感的真正意義，
02:56
and that was reflected
in their built environment,
in their built environment,
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這些都反映在他們的建築環境中，
02:59
in the mosques and churches
built back-to-back,
built back-to-back,
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反映在連排的清真寺和教堂中，
03:01
in the interwoven souks and public venues,
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反映在交織的集市和公共街道中，
03:04
and the proportions and sizes based
on principles of humanity and harmony.
on principles of humanity and harmony.
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也反映在根據人性與和諧原則
而確定的比例和尺寸中。
而確定的比例和尺寸中。
03:08
This architecture of mixity
can still be read in the remains.
can still be read in the remains.
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這種混合性的建築風格
仍然可以在遺跡中辨析出來。
仍然可以在遺跡中辨析出來。
03:12
The old Islamic city in Syria
was built over a multilayered past,
was built over a multilayered past,
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敘利亞裡的伊斯蘭古城
建造在跌宕的歷史之上，
建造在跌宕的歷史之上，
03:16
integrating with it
and embracing its spirit.
and embracing its spirit.
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與這段過去融合，並且容納了它的精神。
03:18
So did its communities.
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它的社區也是如此。
03:20
People lived and worked with each other
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人們一起生活，一起工作，
03:22
in a place that gave them
a sense of belonging
a sense of belonging
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在一個給了他們歸屬感
03:24
and made them feel at home.
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和讓他們賓至如歸的地方。
03:26
They shared a remarkably
unified existence.
unified existence.
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他們共有著一種
非同尋常的統一的生活方式。
非同尋常的統一的生活方式。
03:29
But over the last century,
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但是在上個世紀中，
03:31
gradually this delicate balance
of these places has been interfered with;
of these places has been interfered with;
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這些地方美好的平衡逐漸受到了干擾；
03:35
first, by the urban planners
of the colonial period,
of the colonial period,
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首先，是被殖民時期的城市規劃者，
03:38
when the French went
enthusiastically about,
enthusiastically about,
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當法國人積極地行動，
03:40
transforming what they saw
as the un-modern Syrian cities.
as the un-modern Syrian cities.
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改造著他們認為
非現代化的敘利亞城市的時候。
非現代化的敘利亞城市的時候。
03:43
They blew up city streets
and relocated monuments.
and relocated monuments.
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他們炸毀了城市街道而且遷移了紀念碑。
03:48
They called them improvements,
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他們把這些叫做改善，
03:50
and they were the beginning
of a long, slow unraveling.
of a long, slow unraveling.
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但是它們是一場漫長、
緩慢的破裂開始。
緩慢的破裂開始。
03:53
The traditional urbanism
and architecture of our cities
and architecture of our cities
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我們城市傳統的城市生活和建築
03:56
assured identity and belonging
not by separation,
not by separation,
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確保了身份和歸屬感，不是通過分裂，
03:59
but by intertwining.
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而是通過融合。
04:01
But over time, the ancient became
worthless, and the new, coveted.
worthless, and the new, coveted.
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但是隨著時光流逝，歷史變得
毫無價值，新潮成為了人們的追求。
毫無價值，新潮成為了人們的追求。
04:05
The harmony of the built environment
and social environment
and social environment
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建築環境和社會環境的和諧
04:08
got trampled over
by elements of modernity --
by elements of modernity --
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被現代化的元素取代 －
04:11
brutal, unfinished concrete blocks,
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令人不悅的尚未完工的混凝土街區，
04:13
neglect, aesthetic devastation,
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冷漠、審美的破壞、
04:16
divisive urbanism that zoned
communities by class, creed or affluence.
communities by class, creed or affluence.
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把社區依照階級、信仰
或者財富劃分的分裂性城市生活。
或者財富劃分的分裂性城市生活。
04:21
And the same was happening
to the community.
to the community.
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同樣的事情也發生在社區中。
04:24
As the shape of the built
environment changed,
environment changed,
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隨著建築環境的特徵發生了改變，
04:26
so the lifestyles and sense
of belonging of the communities
of belonging of the communities
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生活方式和社區的歸屬感
04:30
also started changing.
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也開始發生了變化。
04:32
From a register
of togetherness, of belonging,
of togetherness, of belonging,
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從團結和歸屬的記錄，
04:34
architecture became
a way of differentiation,
a way of differentiation,
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建築變成了一種區分的方式，
04:37
and communities started drifting apart
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而且社區也開始逐漸疏遠，
04:39
from the very fabric
that used to unite them,
that used to unite them,
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遠離那個曾經團結他們的社區結構，
04:42
and from the soul of the place that used
to represent their common existence.
to represent their common existence.
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遠離那個曾經代表他們共同生活方式的典範。
04:47
While many reasons had led
to the Syrian war,
to the Syrian war,
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儘管很多原因導致了敘利亞戰爭，
04:49
we shouldn't underestimate
the way in which,
the way in which,
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我們不應該低估
04:51
by contributing to the loss
of identity and self-respect,
of identity and self-respect,
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通過導致身份和自尊的喪失，
04:55
urban zoning and misguided,
inhumane architecture
inhumane architecture
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城市分區和被誤導的而且非人性的建築
04:59
have nurtured sectarian
divisions and hatred.
divisions and hatred.
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催生宗教分裂和仇恨的方式。
05:02
Over time, the united city
has morphed into a city center
has morphed into a city center
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隨著時間流逝，
一個團結的城市變成了一個市中心
一個團結的城市變成了一個市中心
05:05
with ghettos along its circumference.
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帶有遍佈在城市邊緣的貧民窟。
05:08
And in turn, the coherent communities
became distinct social groups,
became distinct social groups,
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接下來，和諧的社區
變成了有區分的社會群體，
變成了有區分的社會群體，
05:12
alienated from each other
and alienated from the place.
and alienated from the place.
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彼此疏遠，和那個地方也變得疏遠。
05:17
From my point of view,
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在我看來，
05:18
losing the sense of belonging to a place
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失去對一個地方的歸屬感
05:20
and a sense of sharing it
with someone else
with someone else
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以及能與別人分享它的感覺
05:22
has made it a lot easier to destroy.
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讓摧毀這個地方變得更容易。
05:25
The clear example can be seen
in the informal housing system,
in the informal housing system,
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非正式的住房體系就是個清楚的案例，
05:28
which used to host, before the war,
over 40 percent of the population.
over 40 percent of the population.
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一個在戰爭前曾經容納了
超過40%人口的住房體系。
超過40%人口的住房體系。
05:33
Yes, prior to the war,
almost half of the Syrian population
almost half of the Syrian population
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是的，在戰爭前，
大概有一半的敘利亞人口
大概有一半的敘利亞人口
05:37
lived in slums,
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住在貧民窟裡，
05:38
peripheral areas
without proper infrastructure,
without proper infrastructure,
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住在沒有足夠基礎設施的邊緣地區，
05:41
made of endless rows of bare block boxes
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由無止境的一排排裸露的塊狀箱子組成，
05:44
containing people,
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裡面住有人，
05:46
people who mostly belonged
to the same group,
to the same group,
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基本上屬於同一個族群的人，
05:48
whether based on religion,
class, origin or all of the above.
class, origin or all of the above.
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不論是基於宗教、階級、
出身或者是以上所有因素。
出身或者是以上所有因素。
05:53
This ghettoized urbanism
proved to be a tangible precursor of war.
proved to be a tangible precursor of war.
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這種隔離式的城市生活
已被證明是一種有形的戰爭前兆。
已被證明是一種有形的戰爭前兆。
05:58
Conflict is much easier
between pre-categorized areas --
between pre-categorized areas --
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衝突在未被歸類的地區之間更容易發生 －
06:01
where the "others" live.
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「其他人」住的地方。
06:03
The ties that used
to bind the city together --
to bind the city together --
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曾經讓城市團結在一起的聯繫，
06:06
whether they were social,
through coherent building,
through coherent building,
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不論是通過和諧建築形成的社會聯繫，
06:08
or economic, through trade in the souk,
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或者是通過集市貿易形成的經濟聯繫，
06:11
or religious, through
the coexistent presence --
the coexistent presence --
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還是通過共存的靈魂形成的宗教聯繫，
06:14
were all lost in the misguided
and visionless modernization
and visionless modernization
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都喪失在被誤導的而且毫無遠見的
06:17
of the built environment.
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建築環境現代化的過程中。
06:19
Allow me an aside.
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請允許我說一句題外話。
06:21
When I read about heterogeneous urbanism
in other parts of the world,
in other parts of the world,
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當我讀到世界其它地方
各種各樣的城市生活的時候，
各種各樣的城市生活的時候，
06:25
involving ethnic neighborhoods
in British cities
in British cities
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包括英國城市中的種族社區，
06:28
or around Paris or Brussels,
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或者是在巴黎或布魯塞爾周邊，
06:30
I recognize the beginning
of the kind of instability
of the kind of instability
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我意識到動盪的開始，
06:33
we have witnessed
so disastrously here in Syria.
so disastrously here in Syria.
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那種我們在敘利亞
見到的災難性的動盪。
見到的災難性的動盪。
06:38
We have severely destroyed cities,
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我們有被嚴重破壞的城市，
06:40
such as Homs, Aleppo,
Daraa and many others,
Daraa and many others,
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比如霍姆斯、阿勒坡、
德拉和許多其它的城市，
德拉和許多其它的城市，
06:43
and almost half of the population
of the country is now displaced.
of the country is now displaced.
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而且這個國家中
差不多一半的人口都離開了。
差不多一半的人口都離開了。
06:47
Hopefully, the war will end,
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但願戰爭將會結束，
06:49
and the question that,
as an architect, I have to ask, is:
as an architect, I have to ask, is:
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作為建築師，我想問的問題是：
06:53
How do we rebuild?
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我們要如何重建？
06:55
What are the principles
that we should adopt
that we should adopt
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我們應該採取的原則是什麼
06:57
in order to avoid repeating
the same mistakes?
the same mistakes?
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才能避免同樣的錯誤？
07:01
From my point of view, the main focus
should be on creating places
should be on creating places
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在我看來，重點應該集中在創建
07:04
that make their people feel they belong.
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會讓人有歸屬感的地方上。
07:06
Architecture and planning
need to recapture
need to recapture
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建築和規劃需要再現
07:09
some of the traditional values
that did just that,
that did just that,
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一些曾經實現
那種歸屬感的傳統價值觀，
那種歸屬感的傳統價值觀，
07:12
creating the conditions
for coexistence and peace,
for coexistence and peace,
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創造條件實現共同的生活方式，和平，
07:15
values of beauty
that don't exhibit ostentation,
that don't exhibit ostentation,
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追求美而不虛有其表
07:18
but rather, approachability and ease,
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而展現隨和與安逸的審美觀，
07:21
moral values that promote
generosity and acceptance,
generosity and acceptance,
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提倡慷慨和寬容的道德觀，
07:24
architecture that is for everyone
to enjoy, not just for the elite,
to enjoy, not just for the elite,
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讓所有人，而不是貴族，
都可以享受的建築，
都可以享受的建築，
07:28
just as used to be in the shadowed alleys
of the old Islamic city,
of the old Islamic city,
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就像曾經在古老的伊斯蘭城市中
陰暗小巷裡的那些建築一樣，
陰暗小巷裡的那些建築一樣，
07:32
mixed designs that encourage
a sense of community.
a sense of community.
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鼓勵團體意識的混合式設計。
07:36
There is a neighborhood here in Homs
that's called Baba Amr
that's called Baba Amr
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在霍姆斯，有個叫做Baba Amr的社區
07:39
that has been fully destroyed.
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完全被摧毀了。
07:41
Almost two years ago,
I introduced this design
I introduced this design
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大概兩年前，我把這個設計提交到
07:44
into a UN-Habitat competition
for rebuilding it.
for rebuilding it.
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一個為了重建它
而舉辦的聯合國人居署比賽中。
而舉辦的聯合國人居署比賽中。
07:47
The idea was to create an urban fabric
inspired by a tree,
inspired by a tree,
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這個想法是創建一個城市結構，
從一棵樹中得到的靈感，
從一棵樹中得到的靈感，
07:51
capable of growing
and spreading organically,
and spreading organically,
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可以天然地增長和擴張，
07:54
echoing the traditional bridge
hanging over the old alleys,
hanging over the old alleys,
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呼應鄰近古老小巷的傳統橋樑，
07:57
and incorporating apartments,
private courtyards, shops,
private courtyards, shops,
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並且包括公寓、私人庭院、商店、
08:01
workshops, places for parking
and playing and leisure,
and playing and leisure,
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工作坊、停車、玩耍和娛樂的地方，
08:05
trees and shaded areas.
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樹木和庇蔭的地區。
08:07
It's far from perfect, obviously.
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很明顯，它仍不夠完美。
08:09
I drew it during the few hours
of electricity we get.
of electricity we get.
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我在僅能通電的幾個小時裡畫出了它。
08:12
And there are many possible ways
to express belonging and community
to express belonging and community
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還有很多方法來透過建築
表示歸屬感和團體感。
表示歸屬感和團體感。
08:16
through architecture.
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08:17
But compare it with the freestanding,
disconnected blocks
disconnected blocks
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但是把它和獨立式、
彼此分開的街區相比，
彼此分開的街區相比，
08:20
proposed by the official project
for rebuilding Baba Amr.
for rebuilding Baba Amr.
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由官方重建Baba Amr的項目提出的。
08:24
Architecture is not the axis
around which all human life rotates,
around which all human life rotates,
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建築不是人類生活圍繞的軸心，
08:28
but it has the power to suggest
and even direct human activity.
and even direct human activity.
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但是它有建議、
甚至指引人類活動的力量。
甚至指引人類活動的力量。
08:33
In that sense, settlement,
identity and social integration
identity and social integration
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從那個角度來看，
定居、身份和社會融合
定居、身份和社會融合
08:37
are all the producer and product
of effective urbanism.
of effective urbanism.
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都是精彩的城市生活的生產者和產品。
08:41
The coherent urbanism
of the old Islamic city
of the old Islamic city
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例如，古老的伊斯蘭城市
08:44
and of many old European
towns, for instance,
towns, for instance,
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和許多歐洲城鎮和諧的城市生活
08:47
promote integration,
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促進了融合，
08:49
while rows of soulless housing
or tower blocks,
or tower blocks,
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然而一排排沒有生氣的住宅
或者鐘樓街區，
或者鐘樓街區，
08:52
even when they are luxurious,
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即使當它們很奢華的時候，
08:54
tend to promote isolation and "otherness."
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卻很容易引起孤立和排他。
08:57
Even simple things
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即便是簡單的事情
08:59
like shaded places or fruit plants
or drinking water inside the city
or drinking water inside the city
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像城市內庇蔭的地方、果樹或者飲用水
09:03
can make a difference
in how people feel towards the place,
in how people feel towards the place,
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都能影響人們對這個地方的感受，
09:06
and whether they consider it
a generous place that gives,
a generous place that gives,
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影響人們是否認為
那是一個寬容的地方，
那是一個寬容的地方，
09:09
a place that's worth keeping,
contributing to,
contributing to,
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一個值得保留、建設的地方，
09:12
or whether they see it
as an alienating place,
as an alienating place,
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或者他們是否把它
當作一個令彼此疏遠的地方，
當作一個令彼此疏遠的地方，
09:15
full of seeds of anger.
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充滿了憤怒的隱患。
09:17
In order for a place to give,
its architecture should be giving, too.
its architecture should be giving, too.
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為了讓一個地方具備給予的特質，
它的建築也應該具備這種特質。
它的建築也應該具備這種特質。
09:22
Our built environment matters.
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我們的建築環境很重要。
09:24
The fabric of our cities is reflected
in the fabric of our souls.
in the fabric of our souls.
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我們城市的結構
反映在我們靈魂的構造中。
反映在我們靈魂的構造中。
09:28
And whether in the shape
of informal concrete slums
of informal concrete slums
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不論是非正式的混凝土貧民窟，
09:31
or broken social housing
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或者是破損的社會住房，
09:33
or trampled old towns
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或者是被踐踏的古老城鎮，
09:35
or forests of skyscrapers,
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或者是一幢幢的摩天大樓，
09:36
the contemporary urban archetypes
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現代的城市原型，
09:39
that have emerged
all across the Middle East
all across the Middle East
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已經出現在整個中東地區的城市原型，
09:41
have been one cause of the alienation
and fragmentation of our communities.
and fragmentation of our communities.
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是我們社會排外和分裂的一個原因。
09:46
We can learn from this.
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我們可以從中吸取教訓。
09:48
We can learn how to rebuild
in another way,
in another way,
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我們可以學會如何以另一種方式重建，
09:51
how to create an architecture
that doesn't contribute only
that doesn't contribute only
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如何建造一個建築，不只是在
09:54
to the practical and economic
aspects of people's lives,
aspects of people's lives,
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人們生活的實用方面
和經濟方面起到作用，
和經濟方面起到作用，
09:57
but also to their social, spiritual
and psychological needs.
and psychological needs.
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也要滿足他們的社會需求、
精神需求和心理需求。
精神需求和心理需求。
10:02
Those needs were totally overlooked
in the Syrian cities before the war.
in the Syrian cities before the war.
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在戰爭以前，那些需求
在敘利亞城市中完全被忽視了。
在敘利亞城市中完全被忽視了。
10:06
We need to create again
cities that are shared
cities that are shared
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我們需要重建那個
10:09
by the communities that inhabit them.
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由他們賴以生存的社區構成的城市。
10:11
If we do so, people will not feel the need
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如果我們這樣做，人們不會覺得有必要
10:14
to seek identities opposed
to the other identities all around,
to the other identities all around,
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去尋找和周圍其他身份不同的身份，
因為他們都會覺得賓至如歸。
10:18
because they will all feel at home.
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10:22
Thank you for listening.
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感謝你們的傾聽。
ABOUT THE SPEAKER
Marwa Al-Sabouni - ArchitectMarwa Al-Sabouni suggests that architecture played a crucial role in the slow unraveling of Syrian cities' social fabric, preparing the way for once-friendly groups to become enemies instead of neighbors.
Why you should listen
Marwa Al-Sabouni was born in Homs, a city in the central-western part of the country, and has a PhD in Islamic Architecture. Despite the destruction of large parts of the city, she has remained in Homs with her husband and two children throughout the war. In her just-released book The Battle for Home (Thames & Hudson, 2016), she explores the role architecture and the built environment play in whether a community crumbles or comes together, and she offers insights on how her country (and a much-needed sense of identity) should be rebuilt so that it will not happen again.
Marwa Al-Sabouni | Speaker | TED.com